The GPS Self-Driving Car

The GPS Self-Driving Car
 

Self-Driving Car no longer Science Fiction

In the future cars will drive themselves and even park themselves at their destination. General Motors  might start selling GPS cars by 2018.

We've been looking forward to this technology for 50+ years, but now that it is finally only a decade away and GM is testing prototypes it is all a little... unbelievable. "Herbie the Lovebug", the original driverless car, was only a fantasy. Ten years from now we could be driving our own Herbies (or rather it would be driving us).

General Motors is abuzz with the goal of being the first company to offer driverless cars. GM, parts suppliers, university engineers and other automakers are all working on vehicles that could revolutionize short- and long-distance travel. GM chief executive Rick Wagoner will devote part of his speech to the driverless vehicles tomorrow at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas.

"This is not science fiction," Larry Burns, GM's vice president for research and development, said recently.

The most significant obstacles facing the vehicles could be human rather than technical: government regulation, liability laws, privacy concerns and people's passion for the automobile and the control it gives them.

Much of the technology already exists for vehicles to take the wheel: radar-based cruise control, motion sensors, lane-change warning devices, electronic stability control and satellite-based digital mapping. And automated vehicles could dramatically improve life on the road, reducing crashes and congestion.

But only if people are interested: "Now the question is what does society want to do with it?'' Burns said.

"You're looking at these issues of congestion, safety, energy and emissions. Technically there should be no reason why we can't transfer to a totally different world.''

GM plans to use an inexpensive computer chip and an antenna to link vehicles equipped with driverless technologies. The first use likely would be on highways; people would have the option to choose a driverless mode while they still would control the vehicle on local streets, Burns said.

He said the company plans to test driverless car technology by 2015 and have cars on the road around 2018.

Sebastian Thrun, co-leader of the Stanford University team that finished second among six teams completing a 100-kilometre Pentagon-sponsored race of driverless cars in November, said GM's goal is technically attainable. But he said he wasn't confident cars would appear in showrooms within a decade.

"There's some very fundamental, basic regulations in the way of that vision in many countries," said Thrun, a professor of computer science and electrical engineering.

The defence department contest, which initially involved 35 teams, showed the technology isn't ready for prime time. One team was eliminated after its vehicle nearly charged into a building, while another vehicle mysteriously pulled into a house's carport and parked itself.

Thrun said a key benefit of the technology eventually will be safer roads and reducing the roughly 42,000 U.S. traffic deaths that occur annually – 95 per cent of which he said are caused by human mistakes.

"We might be able to cut those numbers down by a factor of 50 per cent," Thrun said.

"Just imagine all the funerals that won't take place."

Other challenges include updating vehicle codes and figuring out who would be liable in a crash and how to cope with blown tires or obstacles in the road. But the systems could be developed to tell motorists about road conditions, warn of crashes or stopped vehicles ahead and prevent collisions in intersections.

Later versions of driverless technology could reduce jams by directing vehicles to space themselves close together, almost as if they were cars in a train, and maximize the use of space on a freeway, he said.

"It will really change society, very much like the transition from a horse to a car," Thrun said.

The U.S. government has pushed technology to help drivers avoid crashes, most notably electronic stability controls that help prevent rollovers. The systems are required on new passenger vehicles starting with the 2012 model year.

Vehicle-to-vehicle communication and technology, allowing cars to talk with highway systems, could come next.

Still in debate are how to address drivers' privacy, whether current vehicles can be retrofitted and how many vehicles would be needing the systems to develop an effective network.

"Where it shakes out remains to be seen but there is no question we see a lot of potential there," said Rae Tyson, a spokesperson for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.

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Driverless cars by 2018?

The outlook: General Motors Corp. says that within the next 10 years it should be able to produce a car that drives itself. Other car companies and parts suppliers are working on similar systems.

How they might work: The plan is to use an inexpensive computer chip and an antenna to link vehicles equipped with radar-based cruise control, lane-change warning devices, electronic stability control, satellite global positioning systems and digital maps.

Possible effects: Such a system could prevent crashes and reduce congestion. Government regulations, liability laws and privacy concerns would need to be addressed.

Sensors: It knows what it's doing

Even the simplest car today can be filled with electronic sensors that monitor everything the car does from one fraction of a second to the next. Some monitors check how far the wheels are moving when you turn while others see what the car itself is doing when the wheels turn - if there's a mismatch, that's a problem.

Sensors in the brakes time each spin of each of the car's wheels. If you hit the brakes and a wheel slows down more quickly than it should, that's a sign your brakes are locking up and the sensors trigger the anti-lock brakes to start pumping to regain traction.

Other sensors will lay dormant for years, probably the entire life of your car, waiting for an impact that may never come. But if that impact ever does come, they'll trigger the airbags.

There are monitors watching your behavior as well. They watch how far and how hard you press the gas and how far you're turning the wheel.

Radar: It knows what's out there

While it's still usually found in luxury cars, radar is appearing in some less-espensive cars, too. The most common application is in back-up sensors. They simply warn you, as you're parking the car, when you're getting too close to something (or someone) behind you.

Active cruise control is also becoming more common. These systems allow you to set a maximum speed for your car and will then maintain a set distance behind slower cars ahead. That way you don't have to turn the cruise control off every time you're behind a slowpoke.

Most of these systems only work at highway speeds. But some, like the system created by Continental Tevis for the Mercedes-Benz S-class, actually work all the way down to a dead stop. If you're stuck in stop-and-go traffic, you need never touch the brakes or gas. The car does it all for you. When the traffic clears, off you go.

The safety benefit of these systems is that they prevent a common cause of crashes - tailgating.

Even if they don't do the driving for you, radar systems are also the bases for collision warning systems, like in the new Lexus LS, that watch the road ahead and warn the driver of an impending collision.

Cameras: It can see and read

On some more expensive luxury vehicles, cameras keep an eye on lane lines. If the car starts to cross over a line when the driver hasn't used a turn signal, an alarm sounds.

The trick with using cameras to assist drivers is that the cameras have to know what to look for. Lane lines are fairly simple. Some companies are developing systems that can read the numbers on speed limits signs so they can warn you if you're going too fast.

The Benz S-class uses an infrared camera and infrared light source to provide "night vision" capacity. The scene in front of the car is displayed in the center of the dashboard in green-and-black.

Still, all of these are aids to seeing. The driver still makes the final choice about whether to cross a lane marker or exceed the speed limit.

Computers: It can decide what to do
All that data being pumped out by all those sensors gets channeled to computers that calculate what the car should be doing at all times, given what the driver is doing with the steering wheel, gas and brake pedals. (In most modern cars, this data is also fed to a recorder that "remembers" several seconds worth of data and holds on to what it remembers in the event of a collision. That stored data can be used by accident investigators.)
If the computer senses that the car is doing something that doesn't match - say one or two wheels are spinning too fast or the car isn't following the curve it should - the computer sends commands to actuators (basically tiny motors) that handle brakes, the throttle and possibly even steering mechanisms.
For now, all these computers do is make sure the car is doing what the driver is telling it to do. Ultimately, preventing a crash is still the driver's responsibility.
Communication: It can talk to others
Many cars today have so-called "telematics" systems, such as General Motors' OnStar, that allow the driver to communicate with people or computers in remote locations. These systems can be accessed either by pressing a button or automatically in the event of a crash.
Cars with these systems or with on-board navigation systems also have global position (or GPS) systems installed. GPS uses satellites to assess the exact location of a car.
Several car companies are now working on systems that will allow cars to communicate directly with one another, passing information back-and-forth about each vehicle's position and speed.
Data produced by sensors attached to the stability control and anti-lock-brake systems could instantly relay data about when a car is stopping - or not stopping - instantly warning other cars about potential hazards ahead.
Drivers: What are we here for?
When cars can know where they are, where they need to go, can steer and brake, can see lane markers and can instantly alert one another to their actions, the question arises: "What are drivers for?"
With all but a small fraction of crashes caused by human error, a system of driverless cars will be much safer than anything possible with humans at the wheel.
Computer-driven cars also hold the promise of higher speeds and lower fuel consumption. Streams of cars networked together could travel down major highways at a single high rate of speed without the risk of hitting each other. In cities, it has been estimated that intersections could handle hundreds of times as many cars as they do know with none of the cars ever needing to stop.
Travelling at steady speeds uses less fuel than accelerating and decelerating for stop signs or bottlenecks. Also, with the risk of collision greatly reduced, cars would need less extra weight, in the form of airbags and steel, dedicated to occupant protection.
Fully self-driving cars are possible on our current roadways using technology that could be in place in as little as a decade, said Larry Burns, General Motors' vice president for research and development.
Many barriers to the driverless car are social rather than techinical. There are privacy issues. Many drivers are already uncomfortable with "event data recorders" in most new cars that record everything a car was doing immediately before an impact. What will the reaction be to cars that continuously broadcast everything a car does?
There are also issues of trust. Some drivers will always put ultimate faith in their own driving skillls no matter what. And many will simply miss the pleasure of driving a car.
With concerns rising over "distracted driving," however, it's clear that most people would rather be doing something else while they're behind wheel.
"We've concluded that, for a lot of people, driving has become the distraction," said Burns.

Fuel Cell << A Full Explanation !!!

What Is A Fuel Cell?

In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat.

Hydrogen fuel is fed into the "anode" of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The proton passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create a separate current that can be utilized before they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water.

A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel - from natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on chemistry and not combustion, emissions from this type of a system would still be much smaller than emissions from the cleanest fuel combustion processes.

Types of Fuel Cells Phosphoric Acid  Proton Exchange Membrane High Temperature Proton Exchamge Membrane Molten Carbonate  Solid Oxide  Alkaline  Direct Methanol  Regenerative Zinc Air  Protonic Ceramic  Microbial Fuel Cell Click here to read an article by Fuel Cells 2000 in Earthtoys on the different types of fuel cells. Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC) - Phosphoric acid fuel cells are commercially available today. Hundreds of fuel cell systems have been installed in 19 nations - in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants, landfills and waste water treatment plants. PAFCs generate electricity at more than 40% efficiency - and nearly 85% of the steam this fuel cell produces is used for cogeneration - this compares to about 35% for the utility power grid in the United States. Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and operate at about 450°F. One of the main advantages to this type of fuel cell, besides the nearly 85% cogeneration efficiency, is that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel. PAFCs can tolerate a CO concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be removed. Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEM) - These fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (about 175°F), have high power density, can vary their output quickly to meet shifts in power demand, and are suited for applications, such as in automobiles, where quick startup is required. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), "they are the primary candidates for light-duty vehicles, for buildings, and potentially for much smaller applications such as replacements for rechargeable batteries." This type of fuel cell is sensitive to fuel impurities. Cell outputs generally range from 50 watts to 75 kW. High Temperature Proton Exhcange Membrane fuel cell (HT-PEM) - HT-PEM fuel cells are similar to PEM fuel cells as they both include Membrane Electrode Assemblies (MEAs); however, HT-PEM fuel cells operate at higher temperatures (250°F - 390°F) than PEM fuel cells.  The MEAs of HT-PEM fuel cells can have a membrane that either consists of a proton conductive polymer or a polymer doped with a proton conductive compound.   A common example of the latter is an MEA with a phosphoric acid doped polybenzimidazole (PBI) membrane.  Since HT-PEM fuel cells have been proven to tolerate up to 3% CO, they are a preferred fuel cell technology for integration with fuel reformers.  Typical applications for HT-PEM fuel cells include stationary and mobile applications, such as range extenders for battery electric vehicles. Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) - Molten carbonate fuel cells use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert matrix, and operate at high temperatures - approximatelly 1,200ºF. They require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to the cathode. To date, MCFCs have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel, and simulated coal gasification products. 10 kW to 2 MW MCFCs have been tested on a variety of fuels and are primarily targeted to electric utility applications. Solid Oxide fuel cell (SOFC) - Solid oxide fuel cells use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the electrolyte, and operate at very high temperatures - around 1800°F. One type of SOFC uses an array of meter-long tubes, and other variations include a compressed disc that resembles the top of a soup can. Tubular SOFC designs are closer to commercialization and are being produced by several companies around the world. SOFCs are suitable for stationary applications as well as for auxiliary power units (APUs) used in vehicles to power electronics. Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) - Long used by NASA on space missions, alkaline fuel cells can achieve power generating efficiencies of up to 70 percent. They were used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. Alkaline fuel cells use potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and operate at 160°F. However, they are very susceptible to carbon contamination, so require pure hydrogen and oxygen. Direct Methanol fuel cell (DMFC) - These cells are similar to the PEM cells in that they both use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte. However, in the DMFC, the anode catalyst itself draws the hydrogen from the liquid methanol, eliminating the need for a fuel reformer. Efficiencies of about 40% are expected with this type of fuel cell, which would typically operate at a temperature between 120-190°F. This is a relatively low range, making this fuel cell attractive for tiny to mid-sized applications, to power cellular phones and laptops. Higher efficiencies are achieved at higher temperatures. Companies are also working on DMFC prototypes to be used by the military for powering electronic equipment in the field. Regenerative fuel cell - Regenerative fuel cells are attractive as a closed-loop form of power generation. Water is separated into hydrogen and oxygen by a solar-powered electrolyzer. The hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell which generates electricity, heat and water. The water is then recirculated back to the solar-powered electrolyzer and the process begins again. These types of fuel cells are currently being researched by NASA and others worldwide. Zinc Air fuel cell (ZAFC) - In a typical zinc/air fuel cell, there is a gas diffusion electrode (GDE), a zinc anode separated by electrolyte, and some form of mechanical separators. The GDE is a permeable membrane that allows atmospheric oxygen to pass through. After the oxygen has converted into hydroxyl ions and water, the hydroxyl ions will travel through an electrolyte, and reaches the zinc anode. Here, it reacts with the zinc, and forms zinc oxide. This process creates an electrical potential; when a set of ZAFC cells are connected, the combined electrical potential of these cells can be used as a source of electric power. This electrochemical process is very similar to that of a PEM fuel cell, but the refueling is very different and shares characteristics with batteries. ZAFCs contain a zinc "fuel tank" and a zinc refrigerator that automatically and silently regenerates the fuel. In this closed-loop system, electricity is created as zinc and oxygen are mixed in the presence of an electrolyte (like a PEMFC), creating zinc oxide. Once fuel is used up, the system is connected to the grid and the process is reversed, leaving once again pure zinc fuel pellets. The key is that this reversing process takes only about 5 minutes to complete, so the battery recharging time hang up is not an issue. The chief advantage zinc-air technology has over other battery technologies is its high specific energy, which is a key factor that determines the running duration of a battery relative to its weight. Protonic Ceramic fuel cell (PCFC) - This new type of fuel cell is based on a ceramic electrolyte material that exhibits high protonic conductivity at elevated temperatures. PCFCs share the thermal and kinetic advantages of high temperature operation at 700 degrees Celsius with molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells, while exhibiting all of the intrinsic benefits of proton conduction in PEM and phosphoric acid fuel cells. The high operating temperature is necessary to achieve very high electrical fuel efficiency with hydrocarbon fuels. PCFCs can operate at high temperatures and electrochemically oxidize fossil fuels directly to the anode. This eliminates the intermediate step of producing hydrogen through the costly reforming process. Gaseous molecules of the hydrocarbon fuel are absorbed on the surface of the anode in the presence of water vapor, and hydrogen atoms are efficiently stripped off to be absorbed into the electrolyte, with carbon dioxide as the primary reaction product. Additionally, PCFCs have a solid electrolyte so the membrane cannot dry out as with PEM fuel cells, or liquid can't leak out as with PAFCs. Microbial fuel cell (MFC) - Microbial fuel cells use the catalytic reaction of microorganisms such as bacteria to convert virtually any organic material into fuel.  Some common compounds include glucose, acetate, and wastewater.  Enclosed in oxygen-free anodes, the organic compounds are consumed (oxidized) by the bacteria or other microbes.  As part of the digestive process, electrons are pulled from the compound and conducted into a circuit with the help of an inorganic mediator.  MFCs operate well in mild conditions relative to other types of fuel cells, such as 20-40 degrees Celsius, and could be capable of producing over 50% efficiency.  These cells are suitable for small scale applications such as potential medical devices fueled by glucose in the blood, or larger such as water treatment plants or breweries producing organic waste that could then be used to fuel the MFCs.

There are many uses for fuel cells — right now, all of the major automakers are working to commercialize a fuel cell car. Fuel cells are powering buses, boats, trains, planes, scooters, forklifts, even bicycles. There are fuel cell-powered vending machines, vacuum cleaners and highway road signs. Miniature fuel cells for cellular phones, laptop computers and portable electronics are on their way to market. Hospitals, credit card centers, police stations, and banks are all using fuel cells to provide power to their facilities. Wastewater treatment plants and landfills are using fuel cells to convert the methane gas they produce into electricity. Telecommunications companies are installing fuel cells at cell phone, radio and 911 towers. The possibilities are endless. For monthly updates on the latest fuel cell developments in all applications, sign-up (use the box to the far right of this page) to receive Fuel Cells 2000's monthly technology updates via email. Stationary More than 2500 fuel cell systems have been installed all over the world — in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants - either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines. Fuel cell power generation systems in operation today achieve 40 percent fuel-to-electricity efficiency utilizing hydrocarbon fuels. Since fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise pollution as well as air pollution and when the fuel cell is sited near the point of use, its waste heat can be captured for beneficial purposes (cogeneration).  In large-scale building systems, these fuel cell cogeneration systems can reduce facility energy service costs by 20% to 40% over conventional energy service and increase efficiency to 85 percent. Check out our database of worldwidestationary fuel cell installations. Telecommunications - With the use of computers, the Internet, and communication networks steadily increasing, there comes a need for more reliable power than is available on the current electrical grid, and fuel cells have proven to be up to 99.999% (five nines) reliable.  Fuel cells can replace batteries to provide power for 1kW to 5kW telecom sites without noise or emissions, and are durable, providing power in sites that are either hard to access or are subject to inclement weather.  Such systems would be used to provide primary or backup power for telecom switch nodes, cell towers, and other electronic systems that would benefit from on-site, direct DC power supply.  Landfills/Wastewater Treatment Plants/Breweries/Wineries- Fuel cells currently operate at landfills and wastewater treatment plants across the country, proving themselves as a valid technology for reducing emissions and generating power from the methane gas they produce. They are also installed at several breweries and a winery- Sierra Nevada, Kirin, Asahi and Sapporo and Napa Wine Company. Untreated brewery effluent can undergo anaerobic digestion, which breaks down organic compounds to generate methane, a hydrogen rich fuel.  Transportation Cars - All the major automotive manufacturers have a fuel cell vehicle either in development or in testing right now, and several have begun leasing and testing in larger quantities. Commercialization is a little further down the line (some automakers say 2012, others later), but every demonstration helps bring that date closer. Check out our page on Benefits for Transportation and for a comprehensive chart showcasing all the fuel cell vehicles ever demonstrated, visit our Charts page. Buses - Over the last four years, more than 50 fuel cell buses have been demonstrated in North and South America, Europe, Asia and Australia. Fuel cells are highly efficient, so even if the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, fuel cell buses can reduce transit agencies’ CO2 emissions. And emissions are truly zero if the hydrogen is produced from renewable electricity, which greatly improves local air quality. Because the fuel cell system is so much quieter than a diesel engine, fuel cell buses significantly reduce noise pollution as well. For a comprehensive chart on fuel cell buses, click here. Scooters - In spite of their small size, many scooters are pollution powerhouses.  Gas-powered scooters, especially those with two-stroke engines, produce tailpipe emissions at a rate disproportionate to their small size. These two-stroke scooters produce almost as much particulate matter and significantly more hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide as a heavy diesel truck.  Fuel cell scooters running on hydrogen will eliminate emissions - in India and Asia where many of the population use them - this is a great application for fuel cells. Forklifts/Materials Handling - Besides reducing emissions, fuel cell forklifts have potential to effectively lower total logistics cost since they require minimal refilling and significantly less maintenance than electric forklifts, whose batteries must be periodically charged, refilled with water, and replaced. Due to the frequent starting and stopping during use, electric forklifts also experience numerous interruptions in current input and output - fuel cells ensure constant power delivery and performance, eliminating the reduction in voltage output that occurs as batteries discharge. Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) - Today’s heavy-duty trucks are equipped with a large number of electrical appliances–from heaters and air conditioners to computers, televisions, stereos, even refrigerators and microwaves.  To power these devices while the truck is parked, drivers often must idle the engine.  The Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated the annual fuel and maintenance costs of idling a heavy-duty truck at over $1,800 and that using fuel cell APUs in Class 8 trucks would save 670 million gallons of diesel fuel per year and 4.64 million tons of CO2 per year. Trains - Fuel cells are being developed for mining locomotives since they produce no emissions. An international consortium is developing the world’s largest fuel cell vehicle, a 109 metric-ton, 1 MW locomotive for military and commercial railway applications. Planes - Fuel cells are an attractive option for aviation since they produce zero or low emissions and make barely any noise.  The military is especially interested in this application because of the low noise, low thermal signature and ability to attain high altitude. Companies like Boeing are heavily involved in developing a fuel cell plane. Boats - For each liter of fuel consumed, the average outboard motor produces 140 times the hydrocarbonss produced by the average modern car.  Fuel cell engines have higher energy efficiencies than combustion engines, and therefore offer better range and significantly reduced emissions.  Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and, eventually, to provide primary power in its boats. For more information on the latest demonstrations and to see which companies are working on fuel cells for specialty vehicles, check out our chart. Portable Power Fuel cells can provide power where no electric grid is available, plus they are quiet, so using one instead of a loud, polluting generator at a campsite would not only save emissions, but it won't disturb nature, or your camping neighbors. Portable fuel cells are also being used in emergency backup power situations and military applications. They are much lighter than batteries and last a lot longer, especially imporant to soldiers carrying heavy equipment in the field. Micro Power Consumer Electronics- Fuel cells will change the telecommuting world, powering cellular phones, laptops and palm pilots hours longer than batteries. Companies have already demonstrated fuel cells that can power cell phones for 30 days with out recharging and laptops for 20 hours. Other applications for micro fuel cells include pagers, video recorders, portable power tools, and low power remote devices such as hearing aids, smoke detectors, burglar alarms, hotel locks and meter readers. These miniature fuel cells generally run on methanol, an inexpensive wood alcohol also used in windshield wiper fluid.

Fuel Cells Where did fuel cells come from? What sort of fuels can be used in a fuel cell? Can landfill or biogas be used as a fuel for fuel cells? What's holding back use of fuel cells? What more should be done to spur development of fuel cells? Hydrogen Where does the hydrogen come from? What about hydrogen safety? Fuel Cell Vehicles How would a fuel cell-powered car compare to one powered by a battery? How efficient will a fuel cell car be, and how many miles per gallon will it get? If all those fuel cell cars are emitting water, won't that create other problems? Business How can I invest in fuel cell companies? Where can I buy a fuel cell? What's holding back use of fuel cells? Government Why should the government support fuel cell development? What is the U.S. government doing now? What are other countries doing? Does my state offer incentives for purchasing or installing fuel cells?  What is my state doing by way of fuel cell installations and demonstrations? Projects and Information How can I build my own fuel cell? Can I use a fuel cell to power my home? Is there a school science project I could do involving fuel cells? Where can I find more information on fuel cells, including articles, research and market studies? Where did fuel cells come from? The first fuel cell was built in 1839 by Sir William Grove, a Welsh judge and gentleman scientist. Serious interest in the fuel cell as a practical generator did not begin until the 1960's, when the U.S. space program chose fuel cells over riskier nuclear power and more expensive solar energy. Fuel cells furnished power for the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and still provide electricity and water for the space shuttle. A great history of fuel cells can be found on the Smithsonian website. What sort of fuels can be used in a fuel cell? Fuel cells can promote energy diversity and a transition to renewable energy sources. Fuel cells run on hydrogen, the most abundant element on Earth. The great thing about fuel cells, is that they don't care where the hydrogen comes from - water, methanol, ethanol, natural gas, gasoline or diesel fuel, ammonia or sodium borohydride. Fuels containing hydrogen generally require a "fuel reformer" that extracts the hydrogen. Energy also could be supplied by biomass, wind, solar power or other renewable sources. Fuel cells today are running on many different fuels, even gas from landfills and wastewater treatment plants. When using a fuel other than pure hydrogen, a reformer or fuel processor is required.  A reformer a device that produces hydrogen from fuels such as natural gas, gasoline, methanol, ethanol or naphtha. There are three main types of reforming: steam reforming, partial oxidation and auto-thermal reforming. Steam reformers combine fuel with steam and heat to produce hydrogen. The heat required to operate the system is obtained by burning fuel or excess hydrogen from the outlet of the fuel cell stack. Partial oxidation reformers combine fuel with oxygen to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide then reacts with steam to produce more hydrogen. Partial oxidation releases heat, which is captured and used elsewhere in the system. Auto-thermal reformers combine the fuel with both steam and oxygen so that the reaction is in heat balance. Auto-thermal reforming, while not as fully developed as the others, offers the most flexibility in heat management. In general, both methanol and gasoline can be used in any of the three reformer designs. Differences in the chemical nature of the fuels, however, can favor one design over another. Can landfill or biogas be used to fuel a fuel cell? The Northeast Regional Biomass Program, in conjunction with XENERGY, Inc., has completed a comprehensive study examining the feasibility of utilizing bio-based fuels with stationary fuel cell technologies. The free study can be found athttp://www.nrbp.org/pdfs/pub31.pdf. The findings show that biomass-based fuel cell systems, from a technical perspective, are capable of providing a source of clean, renewable electricity over the long-term. The results of the study aren't news to some people. Fuel cells have already proven to be successful in this application, in service around the world at several landfills and wastewater treatment plants (as well as a few breweries and farms), generating power from the methane gas they produce, and reducing harmful emissions in the process. In 1992, a successful demonstration test at the Penrose Landfill in Sun Valley, California paved the way for fuel cells operating at landfills and wastewater treatment facilities. These types of installations are now working all over the United States and in Asia. Since 1996, Connecticut's Groton Landfill has been producing 600,000 kWh of electricity a year, with a continuous net fuel cell output of 140 kW. In 1997, UTC Power (formerly IFC/ONSI) installed a fuel cell system at the Yonkers wastewater treatment plant in New York, which produces over 1.6 million kWh of electricity per year, while releasing only 72 pounds of emissions into the environment. The city of Portland, Oregon, installed a fuel cell to produce power using anaerobic digester gas from a wastewater facility. It generates 1.5 million kWh of electricity per year, reducing the treatment plant's electricity bills by $102,000 annually. The facility received a Clean Air Excellence Award from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Since then, UTC has sold several PureCell™ 200 fuel cells to California and New York, where the New York Power Authority (NYPA) has installed them at wastewater treatment plants around the city. Another company, FuelCell Energy, Inc. (FCE) is installing its Direct FuelCell® (DFC) power plants at wastewater treatment plans around the world. Both companies also have installed fuel cells at several breweries - Sierra Nevada, Kirin, Asahi and Sapporo - using the methane-like digester gas produced from the effluent from the brewing process to power the fuel cell.  How would a fuel cell-powered car compare to one powered by a battery? Fuel cell automobiles are an attractive advance from battery-powered cars. They offer the advantages of battery-powered vehicles but can also be refueled quickly and could go longer between refuelings. Fuel cells utilizing hydrogen as a fuel would be zero emission vehicles, and those using other fuels would produce near-zero emissions. They are also more efficient than "grid"-powered battery vehicles. In addition, fuel cell cars could produce fewer "system-wide" releases of greenhouse gases -- taking into account all emissions associated with resource recovery, fuel processing and use. Studies by General Motors and Ford noted that fuel cell car engines could be built for about the same price as an internal combustion engine. How efficient will a fuel cell car be, and how many miles per gallon will it get? Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are achieving energy efficiencies of 40 to 50 percent in current testing and demonstrations; through extensive research and development, these numbers are improving every day. Increased energy efficiency, which holds the promise of reducing dependence on foreign oil and increasing energy security, makes FCVs a very attractive replacement for internal combustion engines (ICEs), which are between 10 to 16 percent efficient. Exact calculations vary from study to study, but many automotive manufacturers have released data showing that FCVs are much more efficient than comparable ICE vehicles. Toyota has published research showing its conventional gasoline vehicle with a vehicle efficiency of only 16 percent, while its FCVH-4, running on hydrogen, is projected to achieve 48 percent vehicle efficiency - three times more efficient. General Motors (GM) claims that its fuel cell prototypes running on hydrogen have more than twice the efficiency of their conventional gasoline vehicles. With vehicle emissions and fuel efficiency, it is important to look at the complete picture - from the time the fuel is first taken from the ground, produced, refined, manufactured, transported, and stored, until it actually powers a vehicle, as well as the overall safety risks of handling the fuel along the way. This approach is known as the complete fuel cycle or "well-to-wheels" analysis. A well-to-wheels analysis factors in the fuel production efficiency (well-to-tank) and the vehicle efficiency (tank-to-wheel). Looking at this complete picture offers a more thorough comparison. Thermodynamic laws limit ICEs and all other combustion engines. Having no flame, fuel cells avoid the efficiency losses associated with the ignition, burning, heat transfer to the gases, and exhaust. Fuel cells convert the chemical energy in the fuel directly into electrical energy, which is fed into an electric motor to power the wheels of a FCV. As gasoline enters an ICE, about 85 percent of the energy released by burning it in the engine is lost, mainly as waste heat. The remaining energy is converted to mechanical energy to rotate the engine's shafts and gears; some of this mechanical energy is lost through friction, as it passes through the transmission to the wheels. Even worse, when a car idles, the efficiency is zero. A practical way to think of your vehicle's efficiency is through your own pocketbook. Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs) have been tested with efficiencies of around 10 percent. When you drive your SUV to the gas station and fill the tank with $20.00 of gasoline, or chemical fuel, only $2.00 actually goes towards moving your vehicle. The rest, $18.00 of your money, is wasted as heat or pollution. Battery powered electric vehicles demonstrate the importance of looking at the entire well-to-wheels picture, since no energy conversion takes place on board. Toyota has shown its pure electric vehicle having a vehicle efficiency of 80 percent, twice that of FCVs. If you take into account the well-to-tank efficiency of 26 percent and the efficiencies associated with charging the battery; the overall (well-to-wheels) efficiency becomes 21 percent - better than today's vehicles, but not as efficient as a FCV. Even today, with alternative fuel generation and distribution in its infancy, FCVs have higher well-to-wheels efficiencies than any other type of vehicle, including ICE and battery hybrids. Three independent analyses have reached similar, but not identical conclusions. Toyota's in-house testing has published 13 percent overall, well-to-wheels, fuel cycle efficiency for its gasoline ICE vehicles. The Methanol Institute (MI) has released very similar overall numbers. MI's research shows gasoline ICE vehicles have a 15 percent overall, well-to-wheels, efficiency. Compare that to Toyota's FCHV-4 running on compressed hydrogen overall efficiency of 30+ percent (58 percent for well-to-tank and 48 percent tank-to-wheel respectively), and MI's 31 percent overall efficiency for the average hydrocarbon fuel cell vehicle (85 percent for well-to-tank and 36 percent tank-to-wheel respectively.) GM conducted a well-to-wheels study with Argonne National Laboratory, BP, ExxonMobil and Shell. The study found that hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles are the cleanest and most efficient combination of fuel and propulsion system for the long term, offering zero vehicle tailpipe emissions, greater efficiency and lower CO2, well-to-wheels, than other vehicles. FCV prototypes also have promising long-term potential for weight, size and cost reductions to make them competitive with current ICE cars. For a comprehensive chart that includes the specs and range of all the fuel cell cars currently in development, please visit our Charts page. Can I use a fuel cell to power my home? Fuel cells are ideal for power generation, either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines. Since fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise pollution as well as air pollution and the waste heat from a fuel cell can be used to provide hot water or space heating. There are three main components in a residential fuel cell system - the hydrogen fuel reformer, the fuel cell stack and the power conditioner. Many of the prototypes being tested and demonstrated extract hydrogen from propane or natural gas. The fuel cell stack converts the hydrogen and oxygen from the air into electricity, water vapor and heat. The power conditioner then converts the electric DC current from the stack into AC current that many household appliances operate on. The initial price per unit in low volume production will be approximately $1,500 per kW. Once high volume production begins, the price is expected to drop to $1,000 per kW, with the ultimate goal of getting costs below $500 per kW. Fuel cell developers are racing to reach these cost targets. Many companies are developing and testing fuel cells for stationary and residential applications, working together with utilities and distributors to bring them to market. Even automakers such as GM, Honda and Toyota are branching beyond vehicles and spending money on research and development for stationary applications. Where can I buy a fuel cell? A good place to start is FuelCellStore.com, which provides a virtual marketplace for a wide variety of fuel cells, electrolyzers and hydrogen storage products. The following companies offer a wide range of fuel cell products, including prototype demonstration systems, low-wattage systems, beta-testing systems, and fuel cell-powered products. You will need to check with the individual companies to see if their systems/products are suited to your needs. The U.S. Fuel Cell Council has compiled a list of commercialized fuel cell products. You can also check out our Interactive map and listing of fuel cell developers or purchase our Fuel Cell Directory. BCS Technology, Inc. - small PEM fuel cell systems EcoSoul, Inc - small, educational regenerative fuel cell kits ElectroChem, Inc. - small PEM fuel cell systems Element 1 Power Systems, Inc. - fuel cell systems in a variety of sizes FuelCell Energy, Inc. - Molten carbonate fuel cell power plants Heliocentris Energiesysteme - educational fuel cell kits Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies - wide range of units, from educational to small power systems IdaTech - fuel cell systems with up to 10 kW in generating power Nuvera - PEM fuel cells for backup/telecommunications Plug Power, LLC - PEM fuel cells for back up power ReliOn - PEM fuel cells for backup and remote applications UTC Power - 200kW PAFC power plants Let us know if your company sells fuel cells and should be added to this list. Note: only sellers of fuel cell products, stacks or systems will be added to this list. How can I invest in fuel cell companies? Since Fuel Cells 2000 tries to be an independent voice on the subject of fuel cell technology, we do not recommend stocks of one company over another company. There are, however, places on the web where you can go for information on fuel cell companies that are publicly traded, and can track investment info on these companies. Check out our Fuel Cell Equity and Investment chart to see which companies are receiving money from investment and venture capital firms. Listing these sites is not an implicit endorsement by Fuel Cells 2000 of the information contained on the sites: Clean Edge - provides a variety of research and consulting services focused on clean technology. Our mission is to help companies and investors understand and profit from the clean-tech revolution and to catalyze the development of clean-tech companies and markets. Cleantech Venture Network - a unique opportunity for investors and others to profitably facilitate the growth of young companies with the potential for delivering major economic, environmental and social benefits. CLEANTECH organizes venture forums, provides deal flow, publishes investment reports and offers related services to investors and entrepreneurs. Green Money - for information on investment companies that focus on investing in companies that sell or manufacture products that are energy efficient or environmentally beneficial. New Alternatives Fund, Inc. - a socially responsible mutual fund emphasizing alternative energy and the environment. Areas of investment include hydrogen and fuel cells. Turquoise Corporate Financial Advisors - corporate finance advisory firm based in the City of London. Energy and fuel cells are specialist sectors and Turquoise provides a range of financial advisory services for fuel companies and investors. What's holding back use of fuel cells? Many technical and engineering challenges remain; scientists and developers are hard at work on them. The biggest problem is that fuel cells are still too expensive. One key reason is that not enough are being made to allow economies of scale. When the Model T Ford was introduced, it, too, was very expensive. Eventually, mass production made the Model T affordable. It is very important to spread the successes and show support for fuel cell and hydrogen technology. Please visit ourGrassroots page to find resources for letter writing, contacting your Congressman and engaging in the debate. Where does the hydrogen come from? A fuel cell runs on hydrogen, the simplest element and most plentiful gas in the universe. Yet hydrogen is never found alone - it's always combined with other elements such as oxygen and carbon. Once it has been separated, hydrogen is the ultimate clean energy carrier, which is why it is the most attractive fuel for fuel cells. It has excellent electrochemical reactivity, it's safe to manufacture, has a high power density, has zero emissions characteristics, and can be obtained from a wide variety of sources. Hydrogen can be found in water, fossil fuels such as gasoline, methanol, natural gas, propane, as well as in ammonia and sodium borohydride. Hydrogen made from renewable energy resources provides a clean and abundant energy source, capable of meeting most of the future's high energy needs. When hydrogen is used as an energy source in a fuel cell, the only emission that is created is water, which can then be electrolyzed to make more hydrogen – the waste product supplies more fuel. This continuous cycle of energy production has potential to replace traditional energy sources in every capacity – no more dead batteries piling up in landfills or pollution-causing, gas-guzzling combustion engines. The only drawback is that hydrogen is still more expensive than other energy sources such as coal, oil and natural gas. Researchers are helping to develop technologies to tap into this natural resource and generate hydrogen in mass quantities and cheaper prices in order to compete with the traditional energy sources. There are three main methods that scientists are researching for inexpensive hydrogen generation. All three separate the hydrogen from a 'feedstock', such as fossil fuel or water - but by very different means. Reformers - Fuel cells generally run on hydrogen, but any hydrogen-rich material can serve as a possible fuel source. This includes fossil fuels – methanol, ethanol, natural gas, petroleum distillates, liquid propane and gasified coal. The hydrogen is produced from these materials by a process known as reforming. This is extremely useful where stored hydrogen is not available but must be used for power, for example, on a fuel cell powered vehicle. One method is endothermic steam reforming. This type of reforming combines the fuels with steam by vaporizing them together at high temperatures. Hydrogen is then separated out using membranes. One drawback of steam reforming is that is an endothermic process – meaning energy is consumed. Another type of reformer is the partial oxidation (POX) reformer. CO2 is emitted in the reforming process, which makes it not emission-free, but the emissions of NOX, SOX, Particulates, and other smog producing agents are probably more distasteful than the CO2. And fuel cells cut them to zero. Enzymes - Another method to generate hydrogen is with bacteria and algae. The cyanobacteria, an abundant single-celled organism, produces hydrogen through its normal metabolic function,. Cyanobacteria can grow in the air or water, and contain enzymes that absorb sunlight for energy and split the molecules of water, thus producing hydrogen. Since cyanobacteria take water and synthesize it to hydrogen, the waste emitted is more water, which becomes food for the next metabolism. Solar- and Wind- powered generation - By harnessing the renewable energy of the sun and wind, researchers are able to generate hydrogen by using power from photovoltaics (PVs), solar cells, or wind turbines to electrolyze water into hydrogen and oxygen. In this manner, hydrogen becomes an energy carrier – able to transport the power from the generation site to another location for use in a fuel cell. This would be a truly zero-emissions way of producing hydrogen for a fuel cell. What about hydrogen safety? Many questions have been raised regarding hydrogen's safety as an energy carrier. Hydrogen is highly flammable and requires a low hydrogen to air concentration for combustion. However, if handled properly hydrogen is as safe or safer than most fuels, and hydrogen producers and users have generated an impeccable safety record over the last half-century. There are many myths about hydrogen, which have recently been dispelled. A study of the Hindenburg incident found that it was not the hydrogen that was the cause of the accident. Comprehensive studies have shown that hydrogen presents less of a safety hazard than other fuels including gasoline, propane, and natural gas. In 1997, Ford Motor Company in conjunction with the Department of Energy published a "Hydrogen Vehicle Safety Report" in which it concluded, "the safety of a hydrogen [Fuel Cell Vehicle] system to be potentially better than the demonstrated safety record of gasoline or propane, and equal to or better than that of natural gas." The study cited hydrogen's higher buoyancy, higher lower flammability limit, and much higher lower detonation limit as major contributors to hydrogen's greater safety potential. Specifically, the study compared the safety of the various fuel systems during collisions in open spaces, collisions in tunnels, and over the fuels' entire lifecycle. The study found that in an open space collision, hydrogen powered fuel cell vehicles were safer than gasoline, propane, or natural gas powered internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles because of four factors. Hydrogen's carbon fiber composite tanks are very resilient to rupture even upon high impact. In general, hydrogen tanks and operating systems are designed to withstand without rupture or puncture pressures 2.25 to 3.5 times their operating pressure, high-speed collisions, and direct shots from high-powered rifles and handguns. Hydrogen possesses a density only 7% that of air, and has a high buoyancy so that it will rise and dissipate without wind or ventilation. Natural gas' density is 55% that of air while both gasoline (3.4 to 4 times heavier) and propane (1.52 times heavier) vapors are heavier than air. Hydrogen also has a diffusion coefficient 3.8 times greater than natural gas, 6.1 times greater than propane vapor, and 12 times greater than gasoline vapor. Consequently, hydrogen gas rises and diffuses laterally much faster than natural gas, propane, or gasoline. In open spaces, hydrogen's greater dispersion rate should translate into fewer fires. Also, for hydrogen to burn downward, i.e. when the point of ignition is above the gas, the hydrogen/air mixture must be at least 9% hydrogen or higher. ("if the ignition source is above a 10% or less flammable mixture of hydrogen, then the hydrogen below the source will not be ignited."). In comparison, methane has a downward propagating lower flammability limit of 5.6% making methane more likely than hydrogen to be ignited by a source point located above the gas/air mixture. A fuel cell vehicle could carry approximately 60% less energy than an internal combustion vehicle because a fuel cell vehicle is more efficient. If combusted, a fuel cell vehicle's hydrogen would generate less thermal energy than the comparable amount of natural gas, propane, or gasoline for an internal combustion engine vehicle. The hydrogen gas would also burn quicker in the event of a fire because it has a burning velocity 7 times greater than natural gas or gasoline. The result could be a quick plume of fire that does not cause as much damage as a gasoline fire. A hydrogen powered fuel cell vehicle will possess many safety sensors and devices that will stop the flow of hydrogen through the system if a leak is detected or in the event of an impact. By sealing the tank, the safety measures will decrease the chance that a rupture in a line will cause a continuous leak that would lead to a hydrogen concentration sufficient for ignition. The vehicle design will also cut electrical power from the battery eliminating an ignition source. In a tunnel collision, the same properties that made hydrogen safer for open-air collisions should also make hydrogen safer. Hydrogen gas will disperse quicker than other fuels, although it could create a larger initial plume of gas potentially coming into contact with more ignition sources than a natural gas plume. If handled properly, the entire lifecycle of the hydrogen should prove to be safer than those of natural gas, propane, and gasoline. The production and transportation of hydrogen would pose fewer direct public hazards because hydrogen gas pipelines or hydrogen tanker trucks present less of a public risk than oil tank trucks (see above). Moreover, hydrogen is not toxic and will not contaminate the environment like a propane, gasoline, or even a natural gas spill could. Hydrogen's safety record provides no evidence of an unusual safety risk. Liquid hydrogen trucks have carried on the nation's roadways an average 70 million gallons of liquid hydrogen per year without major incident. A high hydrogen gas mixture called "town gas" used to light streetlights and houses has been determined to have an equal safety rating as similarly used natural gas. Hydrogen has been handled and sent through hundreds of miles of pipelines with relative safety for the oil, chemical, and iron industries. Moreover, NASA has used liquid hydrogen as its major fuel source for the last half-century without major incident. A great presentation on hydrogen safety can be found HERE. You can read more about hydrogen and hydrogen safety at our Fuel Cell Library. More information on hydrogen safety is available from the National Hydrogen Association. Can a fuel cell vehicle use other fuels besides hydrogen? Fuel cells run on hydrogen, the most abundant element on Earth. The simplest and most efficient vehicle designs store hydrogen on board, either as compressed gas, liquid, or in metal hydride. Many automotive manufacturers have used a transition fuel in earlier models of their fuel cell vehicles, with the long-term vision of strictly hydrogen-powered vehicles. Some have demonstrated vehicles running on methanol and sodium borohydride. The very first FCVs in demonstration are powered by hydrogen.  They are fleet vehicles that refuel at a centrally located fuel station. For a comprehensive chart that includes the specs, range and fuel choice of all the fuel cell cars currently in development, please visit our Charts page. If all those fuel cell cars are emitting water, won't that create other problems? According to calculations by Jason Mark of the Union of Concerned Scientists: Assuming all hydrogen input turns into water, and that all water is released (either as liquid or vapor), "If the entire U.S. passenger vehicle fleet were powered by hydrogen FCVs, the amount of water emitted annually (assuming no losses) would be 0.005% the rate of natural evapotranspiration (water that evaporates or is transpired by plants) in the continental U.S." Many people are concerned about the amount of water produced by a fuel cell vehicle. They worry "where will the water go?" "Will it cause fog or ice?" and what we can do with it to make it useful. Some discussion of what we have now (the internal combustion engine) and what we will have in a few years (the fuel cell vehicle) can help to put this into perspective. It is important to remember that gasoline engines also produce water. The hydrogen in gasoline (and the hydrogen in diesel fuel and the hydrogen in natural gas) all combine with oxygen in the flame to produce water. The production of water is one of the big reasons combustion happens since forming water releases heat that makes the reaction possible. It is not a new thing to produce water while making power and energy. Burning or chemically oxidizing any hydrogen bearing fuel produces water. The only fuel that may be an exception to this rule is pure-carbon (coal). For the sake of comparison sake we will use a C6H18 (octane) baseline for gasoline. We will base our calculations of the current situation on an internal combustion engine burning octane. The classical hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as its fuel. Where does the hydrogen come from? Natural gas! Yes, the vast majority of hydrogen sold in the world today is made from natural gas, (natural gas is mostly methane, CH4). The conversion is done by combining the CH4 with H2O (water!) to make H2 and CO2, so the manufacturing of hydrogen actually USES water! But we will account for this by using the energy units for comparison, just to make it simpler. So we are comparing the energy from a fuel cell using Hydrogen derived from natural gas to the energy from a gasoline engine using gasoline (octane). What is the difference? The heat of formation of water is - 69 kcal/mole and that of carbon dioxide is - 94 kcal/mole. The heat of combustion of octane in air at perfect stoichiometry with no unburned hydrocarbon is 1806 kcal/mole and the potential chemical energy contained in the same amount of methane is 370 kcal/mole. We must reduce the methane energy by 15% to account for an 85% efficient (energy basis) reformer. The reduction leaves us with 315 kcal/mole in the methane. Comparing the energy content to the hydrogen content allows us to get at the difference in water production between the two fuels. The ratio of heat produced by chemically oxidizing each one is 1806/315 = 5.7. That means one mole of octane will produce almost six times the energy of one mole of methane (converted to hydrogen and) used in a fuel cell, and it weighs more too. The ratio of water formed is the same as the ratio of hydrogen atoms or 18/4 = 4.5. That means the octane makes 4.5 times the amount of water as the methane does to make 5.7 times the energy. Computing a relative ratio of water production for a common unit of energy (cal or btu) gives 4.5/5.7 = 0.78. So the octane makes less water (22% less) than the methane does, on a per unit of energy basis. But energy doesn't take into account the energy conversion device (the fuel cell versus the internal combustion engine). We have to take the energy conversion efficiency into account. Fuel cells are typically 30%-40% efficient in automotive sizes. They are even higher in efficiency in some instances running on pure hydrogen. Some automotive applications running on pure hydrogen have achieved 50% efficiency using fuel cells. Gasoline internal combustion engines are lucky to get 15%-20%. This means that for the same energy in the fuel, the fuel cell car will do twice the work, and the car will travel twice as far, or conversely that the fuel cell car will need only half the energy to do the same work (move the same miles). So divide the 5.7 in half to get 5.7/2 = 2.85 (you only need half the energy to do the same work!) and now you have the FINAL ANSWER. 4.5/2.85 = 1.6. So the internal combustion engine actually makes 1.6 times MORE water than the fuel cell for the same miles traveled in the same car with the same passenger and luggage load. On a "miles traveled" basis, the fuel cell produces LESS water than an internal combustion engine running on gasoline. This is mostly due to the much higher efficiency of the fuel cell compared to the internal combustion engine. While it is true that the internal combustion engine will make more water, it does so at a higher temperature and this might tend to keep the water in the vapor phase longer than the low temperature fuel cell exhaust. It remains to be seen how the now fuel cell cars will fare in use, but the California Fuel Cell Partnership will certainly find out. But keep in mind that on cold days, the relative humidity is usually VERY low, even if it is snowing, so the chances of condensation on the road are reduced. In Chicago and Vancouver, when they tested the Ballard buses, they put the exhaust up at the top of the bus to help make sure the water vapor didn't cause a problem, and it didn't! It made a "plume" of water vapor on cold days, but no condensation problems at all. Engine Type Water Vapor/mile Carbon Dioxide/mile Gasoline Combustion 0.39 lb. 0.85 lb. Fuel Cell Running on Hydrogen from Gasoline 0.32 lb. 0.70 lb. Fuel Cell Running on Hydrogen from Methane 0.25 lb. 0.15 lb. Fuel Cell Running on Renewable Hydrogen 0.25 lb. 0.00 lb. Courtesy of Jeremy Snyder, Desert Research Institute What is the U.S. government doing now? Government support can provide lasting momentum toward developing new technologies. The U.S. government has been involved in fuel cell and hydrogen research for decades now. Launched in 1996, the Department of Defense’s (DOD) Climate Change Fuel Cell Program provides grants of $1,000/kilowatt to purchasers of fuel cell power plants. The ‘buydown’ program has awarded more than $18.8 million toward the purchase of 94 fuel cell units. DOD also has a residential fuel cell demonstration program involving over 21 units at 12 different military locations. The DoD's Defense Logistics Agency is taking a proactive role in deploying fuel cell-powered forklifts in their Defense Depot warehouses around the country. In 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) formed the Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA), made up of commercial developers, universities, national laboratories, and government agencies, to develop low-cost, high power density, solid-state fuel cells for a broad range of applications. DOE's Fuel Cell Technologies Program, a program of the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, works with partners to accelerate the development and successful market introduction of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The website has technical information, publications and lots of resources. The Department of Transportation maintains a fuel cell bus research program. The Environmental Protection Agency has a program to facilitate the use of fuel cells at landfills and wastewater treatment plants, with several fuel cells already been installed across the United States. There is a Federal Fuel Cell Tex Incentive in place until 2016. Why should the government support fuel cell development? Fuel cells can provide major environmental, energy and economic benefits that advance critical national goals. Development and optimization of energy technologies has always been a partnership between government and the private sector. Other power technologies have enjoyed considerable support in the past, including tax credits for natural gas drilling, military support for gas turbine technology, support for solar power research, nuclear power research and coal cleanup technologies, among many other programs. Other countries are moving aggressively towards a hydrogen and fuel cell future so the U.S. should pay heed. Does my state offer incentives for purchasing or installing fuel cells? What is my state doing by way of fuel cell installations and demonstrations? 47 states and the District of Columbia have some sort of fuel cell or hydrogen legislation, demonstration or activism taking place today.   BTI has published State Activities That Promote Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Infrastructure Development, a comprehensive state-by-state analysis of state programs and incentives that specifically include hydrogen, fuel cells and zero emission vehicles. We have also created the searchable State Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Database which catalogues all regulations, initiatives, policy and partnerships in the fuel cell and hydrogen arena. We also include all stationary fuel cell installations, hydrogen fueling stations and vehicle demonstrations in the United States. Fourteen states across the U.S. have established funds to promote renewable energy and clean energy technologies. TheClean Energy Funds Network (CEFN) is a non-profit project to provide information and technical services to these funds and to work with them to build and expand clean energy markets in the United States. DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) has added EERE State Activities & Partnerships containing links to hundreds of state-specific Web pages published by EERE and its technology development programs, including such information as DOE grants to the states, resource maps, project databases, and contacts. Itl also includes the latest state energy news, publications, and statistics. What are other countries doing? The U.S. faces fierce competition from other countries. Canada, Japan and Germany are aggressively promoting fuel cell development with tax credits, low-interest loans and grants to support early purchases and drive down costs. The International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy was established in 2003 as an international institution to accelerate the transition to a hydrogen economy. Members countries include (click on country to see links to government programs and projects, latest media, reports and roadmaps, and recent IPHE statements) Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, European Commission, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Russian Federation,United Kingdom, and the United States. Fuel Cell Today publishes worldwide and country-specific fuel cell and hydrogen market surveys on their website. New Players in the Hydrogen Game - an article by Sandra Curtin in Earthtoys E-magazine about Iceland, Sweden and Denmark's hydrogen and fuel cell support and projects. Other international organizations include: European Fuel Cell Group - European trade association for the fuel cell industry. Fuel Cell Commercialization Conference of Japan - examines specific issues affecting the commercialization and widespread use of fuel cells, and incorporates the findings into policy proposals with a view to enabling member companies to take steps to resolve the issues themselves, and having these findings reflected in government measures. Through this, the FCCJ can make an important contribution to the commercialization and widespread use of fuel cells in Japan, and to the growth of Japan's fuel cell industry. Fuel Cell Institute of Australia - organization focusing on fuel cells within Australia. Fuel Cells UK - established to foster the development of the UK fuel cell industry; elevate the UK industry in the international arena; and raise the profile of UK fuel cell activity. Hydrogen & Fuel Cells Canada - mission is to accelerate Canada's world-leading hydrogen and fuel cell industry. Members include most types of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, components, systems supply and integration, fuelling systems, fuel storage, and engineering and financial services. Japan Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Demonstration Project U.S. Fuel Cell Council - a nonprofit trade association dedicated to fostering the commercialization of fuel cells in the United States. World Fuel Cell Council - a non-profit association founded in 1991 to promote the most rapid commercialization of fuel cells. Members of the Council include companies involved in the development of fuel cells. Based in Germany. What more should be done to spur development of fuel cells? The U.S. government should take three steps to help commercialize fuel cells: 1. Major increases are needed in research and development budgets of the Departments of Energy and Transportation, and elsewhere. 2. The federal government should also take the lead to purchase early power units and vehicles. 3. The government should continue and expand the program to help "buy down" the cost of early units installed around the country. To put costs into perspective, we pay more than $5 billion for imported oil each month. A small fraction of that amount could fully commercialize fuel cells within five years and create tens of thousands of jobs. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: The Path Forward presented a comprehensive strategy for federal investment in fuel cell technology and fuel infrastructure. The report lays out a 10-year, $5.5 billion cost-shared plan designed to maximize the benefits of government-industry partnerships. The $5.5 billion is the federal government's share of the plan, comparable to past energy government investment. The fuel cell coalition estimates that industry would invest ten times that figure. To find out what you can do as an individual, check out our Grassroots page. How can I build my own fuel cell? If you are interested in building your own fuel cell, there is an article from Home Power magazine that provides step-by-step instructions on how to build a fuel cell from scratch. This is an archived issue, so it costs $5.00. The e-book Build Your Own Fuel Cells by Phillip Hurley contains complete, easy to understand illustrated instructions for building several types of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells - and, printable templates for 6 PEM fuel cell types, including convection fuel cells and oxygen-hydrogen fuel cells, in both single slice and stacks.  Fuelcellstore.com has all of the available fuel cell kits, stacks and components to build a fuel cell. Is there a school science project I could do involving fuel cells? There are many resources out there focusing on fuel cells and many websites offer science projects and lesson plans for students and teachers interested in learning more about this technology. The Educational Resources page of our Career Center has a more complete list. Dr. Martin Schmidt has written a paper that provides an excellent school science project written for all interested persons, even for those having little prior knowledge of fuel cells. You can find his paper online. If you are interested in building your own fuel cell, there is an article from Home Power magazine that provides step-by-step instructions on how to build a fuel cell from scratch.  The issue is now archived, so it costs $5.00 to purchase. Fuel Cell Technology: An Alternative Energy System For the Future, contains a fuel cell lesson plan for teachers, but includes experiments that students could use for a science project or report.  Energy Quest, a program from the California Energy Commission, has a lot of great information on fuel cells, renewable energy and alternative vehicles. In the Energy & Science Projects section, there are a number of science projects and energy activities for students, K-12, including links to other science project sites.  And as always, for the latest fuel cell news and information, our online Fuel Cell Library includes links to numerous books, articles, and market studies about the entire fuel cell industry - different fuel cell types, fuels and applications. You can also go to our Links page to access information from government agencies, fuel cell newsletters and organizations involved in renewable energy or subscribe to our free Monthly Fuel Cell Technology Updates. Where can I find more information on fuel cells, including articles, research and market studies? Our online Fuel Cell Library includes links to numerous books, articles, and market studies about the entire fuel cell industry - different fuel cell types, fuels and applications. Our Publications page has links to free fuel cell newsletters and informational brochures, as well as textbooks and books you can purchase. You can also go to our Links page to access information from government agencies, fuel cell newsletters and organizations involved in renewable energy or subscribe to our free Monthly Fuel Cell Technology Updates.

Fuel cells run on hydrogen, the simplest element and most plentiful gas in the universe. Hydrogen is colorless, odorless and tasteless. Each hydrogen molecule has two atoms of hydrogen, which accounts for the H 2 we often see. Hydrogen is the lightest element, with a density of 0.08988 grams per liter at standard pressure, yet it has the highest energy content per unit weight of all the fuels – 52,000 Btu/lb, or three times the energy of a pound of gasoline.

Hydrogen is never found alone on earth — it is always combined with other elements such as oxygen and carbon. Hydrogen can be extracted from virtually any hydrogen compound and is the ultimate clean energy carrier. It is safe to manufacture. And hydrogen's chemical energy can be harnessed in pollution-free ways.

Hydrogen generated from diverse domestic resources can reduce demand for oil by more than 11 million barrels per day by the year 2040.

A good source of information on hydrogen is the U.S. Department of Energy's H2IQ web page, as well as the overview book, Hydrogen & Our Energy Future, which expands on DOE's series of one-page fact sheets to provide an in-depth look at hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. This overview book provides additional information on the science behind the technology — how it works, benefits over conventional technology, its status, and challenges — and explains how hydrogen and fuel cells fit into our energy portfolio.

Together with partners, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) developed a National Hydrogen Energy Road Map to provide a framework to make the hydrogen economy a reality.  This Road Map outlines the challenges ahead to developing a hydrogen economy - including the necessary elements of a hydrogen infrastructure for not only on transportation uses but also distributed generation, since development of a hydrogen infrastructure would benefit both applications.

The National Hydrogen Energy Road Map and other pertinent documents are available on the DOE's Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, & Infrastructure Technologies Program website.

Safety

Hydrogen is the perfect companion to electrons in the clean energy systems of the future. But hydrogen is not perfect – no fuel is.

·   Because of its high energy content, hydrogen must be handled properly, just as gasoline and natural gas today require careful handling. Hydrogen is no more dangerous than other fuels, just different.

·   Hydrogen-based fuels like “town gas” were used in many communities in the U.S. and are still used around the world.

·   Hydrogen is made, shipped and used safely today in many industries worldwide. Hydrogen producers and users have generated an impeccable safety record over the last half-century.

·  Liquid hydrogen trucks have carried on the nation's roadways an average 70 million gallons of liquid hydrogen per year without major incident.

Hydrogen has been handled and sent through hundreds of miles of pipelines with relative safety for the oil, chemical, and iron industries.

·  Hydrogen and the Law: Safety and Liability - a powerpoint presentation with lots of statistics and information on hydrogen safety.

Hydrogen Safety for First Responders - DOE's Introduction to Hydrogen Safety for First Responders is a Web-based course that provides an "awareness level" overview of hydrogen for fire, law enforcement, and emergency medical personnel, but also contains a lot of useful information for everyone. This multimedia tutorial introduces hydrogen, its basic properties, and how it compares to other familiar fuels; hydrogen use in fuel cells for transportation and stationary power; potential hazards; initial protective actions should a responder witness an incident; and supplemental resources including videos, supporting documents, and links relevant to hydrogen safety. To receive print or CD versions of the course, contact DOE's Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Information Center or call 1-877-EERE-INFO/877-337-3463.

Fuel Flexibility means Energy Security. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of sources:

·       Traditional: natural gas, gasoline, diesel, propane

·       Renewable/alternative fuels: methanol, ethanol, landfill gas, bio-gas, methane

·       Water: using electrolysis, solar or wind power

·       Innovative: sodium borohydride, algae, peanut shells

Storage

Because hydrogen is such a light gas, it is difficult to store a large amount in a small space. That is a challenge for auto engineers who want to match today's 300-mile vehicle range, but some recent vehicles have done it. Researchers are examining an impressive array of storage options, with U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) support. Today's prototype FCVs use compressed hydrogen tanks or liquid hydrogen tanks. New technologies such as metal hydrides and chemical hydrides may become viable in the future. Another option would be to store hydrogen compounds – methanol, gasoline, or other compounds – on board, and extract the hydrogen when the vehicle is operating.

Delivery

Since fuel cells convert hydrogen into electricity, the main question on everybody's mind is “Where and how am I going to get the hydrogen to fuel up my fuel cell car?” If auto engineers choose to store hydrogen compounds on board the vehicle, tomorrow's fuel infrastructure would look a lot like today's. Many other options are being explored to deliver hydrogen to fuel cell vehicles (FCVs).

• Centralized production and delivery. Hydrogen production and delivery services – including a limited pipeline system – already serve the needs of today's industrial demand.
• On-Site Production. The energy station of the future might produce hydrogen on demand from natural gas, other compounds or even water.
• Innovative Approaches. Fuel cell products that generate electrical power sometimes come with hydrogen generators called Reformers. An energy station might purchase one of these units, use the electricity for operations and tap into the reformer to produce hydrogen for vehicles.
• Power from the sun. The ultimate solution might be solar powered hydrogen filling stations, where electricity generated by the sun (or by a windmill) is used to extract hydrogen from water. This is not as far out as it sounds. Two such stations already are operating in Southern California.

For a complete listing of the hydrogen fueling stations worldwide, check out our chart.

How much will Hydrogen fuel cost?

The U.S. Department of Energy's Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program is working to achieve the following goals:

By 2005, the technology will be available to produce hydrogen at the pump for $3.00 per gallon gasoline equivalent, and DOE wants to validate this technology by 2008.  By 2010, the price goal is $1.50 per gallon of gasoline equivalent (untaxed) at the station.

Even $3 a gallon would save most of us money, since FCVs will be two to three times more efficient than internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.  If all the goals are met, FCVs offer the promise of energy at $1 a gallon - or less!