What Is
A Fuel Cell?
In principle, a fuel cell
operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or
require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat
as long as fuel is supplied.
A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode
and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into
the "anode" of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell
through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a
proton and an electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The proton
passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create a separate current that
can be utilized before they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the
hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water.
A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel
reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel - from
natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on
chemistry and not combustion, emissions from this type of a system would still
be much smaller than emissions from the cleanest fuel combustion processes.
Types
of Fuel Cells
Phosphoric Acid
Proton Exchange Membrane High Temperature Proton Exchamge Membrane Molten Carbonate Solid Oxide Alkaline Direct Methanol Regenerative Zinc Air Protonic Ceramic Microbial Fuel Cell
Click here to
read an article by Fuel Cells 2000 in Earthtoys on the different types of
fuel cells.
Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC) - Phosphoric acid fuel cells are commercially available today.
Hundreds of fuel cell systems have been installed in 19 nations - in
hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power
plants, landfills and waste water treatment plants. PAFCs generate
electricity at more than 40% efficiency - and nearly 85% of the steam this
fuel cell produces is used for cogeneration - this compares to about 35% for
the utility power grid in the United States. Phosphoric acid fuel cells use
liquid phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and operate at about 450°F. One of
the main advantages to this type of fuel cell, besides the nearly 85%
cogeneration efficiency, is that it can use impure hydrogen as fuel. PAFCs
can tolerate a CO concentration of about 1.5 percent, which broadens the
choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be
removed.
Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEM) - These fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures (about
175°F), have high power density, can vary their output quickly to meet shifts
in power demand, and are suited for applications, such as in automobiles, where
quick startup is required. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE),
"they are the primary candidates for light-duty vehicles, for buildings,
and potentially for much smaller applications such as replacements for
rechargeable batteries." This type of fuel cell is sensitive to fuel
impurities. Cell outputs generally range from 50 watts to 75 kW.
High Temperature Proton Exhcange Membrane fuel cell (HT-PEM) - HT-PEM fuel cells are similar to PEM fuel cells as they both
include Membrane Electrode Assemblies (MEAs); however, HT-PEM fuel cells
operate at higher temperatures (250°F - 390°F) than PEM fuel cells. The
MEAs of HT-PEM fuel cells can have a membrane that either consists of a
proton conductive polymer or a polymer doped with a proton conductive
compound. A common example of the latter is an MEA with a
phosphoric acid doped polybenzimidazole (PBI) membrane. Since HT-PEM
fuel cells have been proven to tolerate up to 3% CO, they are a preferred
fuel cell technology for integration with fuel reformers. Typical
applications for HT-PEM fuel cells include stationary and mobile
applications, such as range extenders for battery electric vehicles.
Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) - Molten carbonate fuel cells use an electrolyte composed of a
molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert matrix,
and operate at high temperatures - approximatelly 1,200ºF. They require
carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to the cathode. To date, MCFCs have
been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, landfill
gas, marine diesel, and simulated coal gasification products. 10 kW to 2 MW
MCFCs have been tested on a variety of fuels and are primarily targeted to
electric utility applications.
Solid Oxide fuel cell (SOFC) - Solid oxide fuel cells use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound
as the electrolyte, and operate at very high temperatures - around 1800°F.
One type of SOFC uses an array of meter-long tubes, and other variations
include a compressed disc that resembles the top of a soup can. Tubular SOFC
designs are closer to commercialization and are being produced by several
companies around the world. SOFCs are suitable for stationary applications as
well as for auxiliary power units (APUs) used in vehicles to power electronics.
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) - Long used by NASA on space missions, alkaline fuel cells can achieve power generating efficiencies of up to 70 percent. They were used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. Alkaline fuel cells use potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and operate at 160°F. However, they are very susceptible to carbon contamination, so require pure hydrogen and oxygen.
Direct Methanol fuel cell (DMFC) - These cells are similar to the PEM cells in that they both use
a polymer membrane as the electrolyte. However, in the DMFC, the anode
catalyst itself draws the hydrogen from the liquid methanol, eliminating the
need for a fuel reformer. Efficiencies of about 40% are expected with this
type of fuel cell, which would typically operate at a temperature between
120-190°F. This is a relatively low range, making this fuel cell attractive
for tiny to mid-sized applications, to power cellular phones and laptops.
Higher efficiencies are achieved at higher temperatures. Companies are also
working on DMFC prototypes to be used by the military for powering electronic
equipment in the field.
Regenerative fuel cell - Regenerative fuel
cells are attractive as a closed-loop form of power generation. Water is
separated into hydrogen and oxygen by a solar-powered electrolyzer. The
hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell which generates electricity,
heat and water. The water is then recirculated back to the solar-powered
electrolyzer and the process begins again. These types of fuel cells are
currently being researched by NASA and others worldwide.
Zinc Air fuel cell (ZAFC) - In a
typical zinc/air fuel cell, there is a gas diffusion electrode (GDE), a zinc
anode separated by electrolyte, and some form of mechanical separators. The
GDE is a permeable membrane that allows atmospheric oxygen to pass through.
After the oxygen has converted into hydroxyl ions and water, the hydroxyl
ions will travel through an electrolyte, and reaches the zinc anode. Here, it
reacts with the zinc, and forms zinc oxide. This process creates an
electrical potential; when a set of ZAFC cells are connected, the combined
electrical potential of these cells can be used as a source of electric
power. This electrochemical process is very similar to that of a PEM fuel
cell, but the refueling is very different and shares characteristics with
batteries. ZAFCs contain a zinc "fuel tank" and a zinc
refrigerator that automatically and silently regenerates the fuel. In this
closed-loop system, electricity is created as zinc and oxygen are mixed in
the presence of an electrolyte (like a PEMFC), creating zinc oxide. Once fuel
is used up, the system is connected to the grid and the process is reversed,
leaving once again pure zinc fuel pellets. The key is that this reversing
process takes only about 5 minutes to complete, so the battery recharging
time hang up is not an issue. The chief advantage zinc-air technology has
over other battery technologies is its high specific energy, which is a key
factor that determines the running duration of a battery relative to its
weight.
Protonic Ceramic fuel cell (PCFC) - This new type of fuel cell is based on a ceramic electrolyte
material that exhibits high protonic conductivity at elevated temperatures.
PCFCs share the thermal and kinetic advantages of high temperature operation
at 700 degrees Celsius with molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells,
while exhibiting all of the intrinsic benefits of proton conduction in PEM
and phosphoric acid fuel cells. The high operating temperature is necessary
to achieve very high electrical fuel efficiency with hydrocarbon fuels. PCFCs
can operate at high temperatures and electrochemically oxidize fossil fuels
directly to the anode. This eliminates the intermediate step of producing
hydrogen through the costly reforming process. Gaseous molecules of the
hydrocarbon fuel are absorbed on the surface of the anode in the presence of
water vapor, and hydrogen atoms are efficiently stripped off to be absorbed
into the electrolyte, with carbon dioxide as the primary reaction product.
Additionally, PCFCs have a solid electrolyte so the membrane cannot dry out
as with PEM fuel cells, or liquid can't leak out as with PAFCs.
Microbial fuel cell (MFC) -
Microbial fuel cells use the catalytic reaction of microorganisms such as
bacteria to convert virtually any organic material into fuel. Some
common compounds include glucose, acetate, and wastewater. Enclosed in
oxygen-free anodes, the organic compounds are consumed (oxidized) by the
bacteria or other microbes. As part of the digestive process, electrons
are pulled from the compound and conducted into a circuit with the help of an
inorganic mediator. MFCs operate well in mild conditions relative to
other types of fuel cells, such as 20-40 degrees Celsius, and could be
capable of producing over 50% efficiency. These cells are suitable for
small scale applications such as potential medical devices fueled by glucose
in the blood, or larger such as water treatment plants or breweries producing
organic waste that could then be used to fuel the MFCs.
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There are many uses for
fuel cells — right now, all of the major automakers are working to
commercialize a fuel cell car. Fuel cells are powering buses, boats, trains,
planes, scooters, forklifts, even bicycles. There are fuel cell-powered
vending machines, vacuum cleaners and highway road signs. Miniature fuel
cells for cellular phones, laptop computers and portable electronics are on
their way to market. Hospitals, credit card centers, police stations, and
banks are all using fuel cells to provide power to their facilities.
Wastewater treatment plants and landfills are using fuel cells to convert the
methane gas they produce into electricity. Telecommunications companies are
installing fuel cells at cell phone, radio and 911 towers. The possibilities
are endless.
For monthly updates on
the latest fuel cell developments in all applications, sign-up (use the box
to the far right of this page) to receive Fuel Cells 2000's monthly
technology updates via email.
Stationary
More than 2500 fuel cell
systems have been installed all over the world — in hospitals, nursing homes,
hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants - either connected to
the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for
critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent generator for on-site
service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines.
Fuel
cell power generation systems in operation today achieve 40 percent fuel-to-electricity
efficiency utilizing hydrocarbon fuels. Since fuel cells operate silently,
they reduce noise pollution as well as air pollution and when the fuel cell
is sited near the point of use, its waste heat can be captured for beneficial
purposes (cogeneration). In large-scale building systems, these fuel
cell cogeneration systems can reduce facility energy service costs by 20% to
40% over conventional energy service and increase efficiency to 85 percent. Check out our database
of worldwidestationary fuel cell
installations.
Telecommunications - With
the use of computers, the Internet, and communication networks steadily
increasing, there comes a need for more reliable power than is available on
the current electrical grid, and fuel cells have proven to be up to 99.999%
(five nines) reliable. Fuel cells can replace batteries to provide
power for 1kW to 5kW telecom sites without noise or emissions, and are
durable, providing power in sites that are either hard to access or are
subject to inclement weather. Such systems would be used to provide
primary or backup power for telecom switch nodes, cell towers, and other
electronic systems that would benefit from on-site, direct DC power
supply.
Landfills/Wastewater Treatment Plants/Breweries/Wineries- Fuel cells currently operate at landfills
and wastewater treatment plants across the country, proving themselves as a
valid technology for reducing emissions and generating power from the methane
gas they produce. They are also installed at several breweries and a winery-
Sierra Nevada, Kirin, Asahi and Sapporo and Napa Wine Company. Untreated
brewery effluent can undergo anaerobic digestion, which breaks down organic
compounds to generate methane, a hydrogen rich fuel.
Transportation
Cars - All
the major automotive manufacturers have a fuel cell vehicle either in
development or in testing right now, and several have begun leasing and
testing in larger quantities. Commercialization is a little further down the
line (some automakers say 2012, others later), but every demonstration helps
bring that date closer. Check out our page on Benefits for Transportation and for a comprehensive chart showcasing all the fuel cell
vehicles ever demonstrated, visit our Charts page.
Buses - Over
the last four years, more than 50 fuel cell buses have been demonstrated in
North and South America, Europe, Asia and Australia. Fuel cells are highly
efficient, so even if the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, fuel cell
buses can reduce transit agencies’ CO2 emissions. And emissions are truly
zero if the hydrogen is produced from renewable electricity, which greatly
improves local air quality. Because the fuel cell system is so much quieter
than a diesel engine, fuel cell buses significantly reduce noise pollution as
well. For a comprehensive chart on fuel cell buses, click here.
Scooters - In
spite of their small size, many scooters are pollution powerhouses.
Gas-powered scooters, especially those with two-stroke engines, produce
tailpipe emissions at a rate disproportionate to their small size. These
two-stroke scooters produce almost as much particulate matter and
significantly more hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide as a heavy diesel
truck. Fuel cell scooters running on hydrogen will eliminate emissions
- in India and Asia where many of the population use them - this is a great
application for fuel cells.
Forklifts/Materials Handling - Besides
reducing emissions, fuel cell forklifts have potential to effectively lower
total logistics cost since they require minimal refilling and significantly
less maintenance than electric forklifts, whose batteries must be
periodically charged, refilled with water, and replaced. Due to the frequent
starting and stopping during use, electric forklifts also experience numerous
interruptions in current input and output - fuel cells ensure constant power
delivery and performance, eliminating the reduction in voltage output that
occurs as batteries discharge.
Auxiliary
Power Units (APUs) -
Today’s heavy-duty trucks are equipped with a large number of electrical
appliances–from heaters and air conditioners to computers, televisions,
stereos, even refrigerators and microwaves. To power these devices
while the truck is parked, drivers often must idle the engine. The
Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated the annual fuel and maintenance
costs of idling a heavy-duty truck at over $1,800 and that using fuel cell
APUs in Class 8 trucks would save 670 million gallons of diesel fuel per year
and 4.64 million tons of CO2 per year.
Trains - Fuel cells are being
developed for mining locomotives since they produce no emissions. An
international consortium is developing the world’s largest fuel cell vehicle,
a 109 metric-ton, 1 MW locomotive for military and commercial railway
applications.
Planes - Fuel cells are an
attractive option for aviation since they produce zero or low emissions and
make barely any noise. The military is especially interested in this
application because of the low noise, low thermal signature and ability to
attain high altitude. Companies like Boeing are heavily involved in
developing a fuel cell plane.
Boats - For each liter of fuel consumed, the average
outboard motor produces 140 times the hydrocarbonss produced by the average
modern car. Fuel cell engines have higher energy efficiencies than
combustion engines, and therefore offer better range and significantly
reduced emissions. Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing
fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and, eventually, to
provide primary power in its boats.
For more information on
the latest demonstrations and to see which companies are working on fuel
cells for specialty vehicles, check out our chart.
Portable Power
Fuel
cells can provide power where no electric grid is available, plus they are
quiet, so using one instead of a loud, polluting generator at a campsite
would not only save emissions, but it won't disturb nature, or your camping
neighbors. Portable fuel cells are also being used in emergency backup power
situations and military applications. They are much lighter than batteries
and last a lot longer, especially imporant to soldiers carrying heavy
equipment in the field.
Micro Power
Consumer Electronics- Fuel cells will change
the telecommuting world, powering cellular phones, laptops and palm pilots
hours longer than batteries. Companies have already demonstrated fuel cells
that can power cell phones for 30 days with out recharging and laptops for 20
hours. Other applications for micro fuel cells include pagers, video
recorders, portable power tools, and low power remote devices such as hearing
aids, smoke detectors, burglar alarms, hotel locks and meter readers. These
miniature fuel cells generally run on methanol, an inexpensive wood alcohol
also used in windshield wiper fluid.
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Fuel
Cells
Hydrogen
Fuel
Cell Vehicles
Business
Government
Does my state offer
incentives for purchasing or installing fuel cells?
What is my state doing by way of fuel cell installations and demonstrations?
Projects
and Information
The first fuel cell was
built in 1839 by Sir William Grove, a Welsh judge and gentleman scientist.
Serious interest in the fuel cell as a practical generator did not begin
until the 1960's, when the U.S. space program chose fuel cells over riskier
nuclear power and more expensive solar energy. Fuel cells furnished power for
the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and still provide electricity and water for
the space shuttle. A great history of fuel cells can be found on the Smithsonian website.
Fuel cells can promote
energy diversity and a transition to renewable energy sources. Fuel cells run
on hydrogen, the most abundant element on Earth. The great thing about fuel
cells, is that they don't care where the hydrogen comes from - water,
methanol, ethanol, natural gas, gasoline or diesel fuel, ammonia or sodium
borohydride. Fuels containing hydrogen generally require a "fuel
reformer" that extracts the hydrogen. Energy also could be supplied by
biomass, wind, solar power or other renewable sources. Fuel cells today are
running on many different fuels, even gas from landfills and wastewater
treatment plants.
When using a fuel other
than pure hydrogen, a reformer or fuel
processor is
required. A reformer a
device that produces hydrogen from fuels such as natural gas, gasoline,
methanol, ethanol or naphtha. There are three main types of reforming: steam
reforming, partial oxidation and auto-thermal reforming. Steam reformers
combine fuel with steam and heat to produce hydrogen. The heat required to
operate the system is obtained by burning fuel or excess hydrogen from the
outlet of the fuel cell stack. Partial oxidation reformers combine fuel with
oxygen to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide then
reacts with steam to produce more hydrogen. Partial oxidation releases heat,
which is captured and used elsewhere in the system. Auto-thermal reformers
combine the fuel with both steam and oxygen so that the reaction is in heat
balance. Auto-thermal reforming, while not as fully developed as the others,
offers the most flexibility in heat management. In general, both methanol and
gasoline can be used in any of the three reformer designs. Differences in the
chemical nature of the fuels, however, can favor one design over another.
The Northeast Regional
Biomass Program, in conjunction with XENERGY, Inc., has completed a
comprehensive study examining the feasibility of utilizing bio-based fuels
with stationary fuel cell technologies. The free study can be found athttp://www.nrbp.org/pdfs/pub31.pdf. The
findings show that biomass-based fuel cell systems, from a technical
perspective, are capable of providing a source of clean, renewable
electricity over the long-term. The results of the study aren't news to some
people. Fuel cells have already proven to be successful in this application,
in service around the world at several landfills and wastewater treatment
plants (as well as a few breweries and farms), generating power from the
methane gas they produce, and reducing harmful emissions in the process.
In 1992, a successful demonstration test at the Penrose Landfill in Sun Valley, California paved the way for fuel cells operating at landfills and wastewater treatment facilities. These types of installations are now working all over the United States and in Asia. Since 1996, Connecticut's Groton Landfill has been producing 600,000 kWh of electricity a year, with a continuous net fuel cell output of 140 kW. In 1997, UTC Power (formerly IFC/ONSI) installed a fuel cell system at the Yonkers wastewater treatment plant in New York, which produces over 1.6 million kWh of electricity per year, while releasing only 72 pounds of emissions into the environment. The city of Portland, Oregon, installed a fuel cell to produce power using anaerobic digester gas from a wastewater facility. It generates 1.5 million kWh of electricity per year, reducing the treatment plant's electricity bills by $102,000 annually. The facility received a Clean Air Excellence Award from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Since then, UTC has sold several PureCell™ 200 fuel cells to California and New York, where the New York Power Authority (NYPA) has installed them at wastewater treatment plants around the city.
Another company, FuelCell Energy, Inc. (FCE) is installing its Direct FuelCell® (DFC) power plants at
wastewater treatment plans around the world.
Both companies also have
installed fuel cells at several breweries - Sierra Nevada, Kirin, Asahi and
Sapporo - using the methane-like digester gas produced from the effluent from
the brewing process to power the fuel cell.
Fuel cell automobiles are
an attractive advance from battery-powered cars. They offer the advantages of
battery-powered vehicles but can also be refueled quickly and could go longer
between refuelings.
Fuel cells utilizing
hydrogen as a fuel would be zero emission vehicles, and those using other
fuels would produce near-zero emissions. They are also more efficient than
"grid"-powered battery vehicles. In addition, fuel cell cars could
produce fewer "system-wide" releases of greenhouse gases -- taking
into account all emissions associated with resource recovery, fuel processing
and use.
Studies by General Motors
and Ford noted that fuel cell car engines could be built for about the same
price as an internal combustion engine.
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs)
are achieving energy efficiencies of 40 to 50 percent in current testing and
demonstrations; through extensive research and development, these numbers are
improving every day. Increased energy efficiency, which holds the promise of
reducing dependence on foreign oil and increasing energy security, makes FCVs
a very attractive replacement for internal combustion engines (ICEs), which
are between 10 to 16 percent efficient.
Exact calculations vary
from study to study, but many automotive manufacturers have released data
showing that FCVs are much more efficient than comparable ICE vehicles.
Toyota has published research showing its conventional gasoline vehicle with
a vehicle efficiency of only 16 percent, while its FCVH-4, running on
hydrogen, is projected to achieve 48 percent vehicle efficiency - three times
more efficient. General Motors (GM) claims that its fuel cell prototypes
running on hydrogen have more than twice the efficiency of their conventional
gasoline vehicles.
With vehicle emissions
and fuel efficiency, it is important to look at the complete picture - from
the time the fuel is first taken from the ground, produced, refined,
manufactured, transported, and stored, until it actually powers a vehicle, as
well as the overall safety risks of handling the fuel along the way. This
approach is known as the complete fuel cycle or "well-to-wheels"
analysis. A well-to-wheels analysis factors in the fuel production efficiency
(well-to-tank) and the vehicle efficiency (tank-to-wheel). Looking at this
complete picture offers a more thorough comparison.
Thermodynamic laws limit
ICEs and all other combustion engines. Having no flame, fuel cells avoid the
efficiency losses associated with the ignition, burning, heat transfer to the
gases, and exhaust. Fuel cells convert the chemical energy in the fuel
directly into electrical energy, which is fed into an electric motor to power
the wheels of a FCV.
As gasoline enters an
ICE, about 85 percent of the energy released by burning it in the engine is
lost, mainly as waste heat. The remaining energy is converted to mechanical
energy to rotate the engine's shafts and gears; some of this mechanical
energy is lost through friction, as it passes through the transmission to the
wheels. Even worse, when a car idles, the efficiency is zero. A practical way
to think of your vehicle's efficiency is through your own pocketbook. Sport
Utility Vehicles (SUVs) have been tested with efficiencies of around 10
percent. When you drive your SUV to the gas station and fill the tank with
$20.00 of gasoline, or chemical fuel, only $2.00 actually goes towards moving
your vehicle. The rest, $18.00 of your money, is wasted as heat or pollution.
Battery powered electric
vehicles demonstrate the importance of looking at the entire well-to-wheels
picture, since no energy conversion takes place on board. Toyota has shown
its pure electric vehicle having a vehicle efficiency of 80 percent, twice
that of FCVs. If you take into account the well-to-tank efficiency of 26
percent and the efficiencies associated with charging the battery; the
overall (well-to-wheels) efficiency becomes 21 percent - better than today's
vehicles, but not as efficient as a FCV.
Even today, with
alternative fuel generation and distribution in its infancy, FCVs have higher
well-to-wheels efficiencies than any other type of vehicle, including ICE and
battery hybrids. Three independent analyses have reached similar, but not identical
conclusions. Toyota's in-house testing has published 13 percent overall,
well-to-wheels, fuel cycle efficiency for its gasoline ICE vehicles. The
Methanol Institute (MI) has released very similar overall numbers. MI's
research shows gasoline ICE vehicles have a 15 percent overall,
well-to-wheels, efficiency. Compare that to Toyota's FCHV-4 running on
compressed hydrogen overall efficiency of 30+ percent (58 percent for
well-to-tank and 48 percent tank-to-wheel respectively), and MI's 31 percent
overall efficiency for the average hydrocarbon fuel cell vehicle (85 percent
for well-to-tank and 36 percent tank-to-wheel respectively.)
GM conducted a
well-to-wheels study with Argonne National Laboratory, BP, ExxonMobil and
Shell. The study found that hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicles are the
cleanest and most efficient combination of fuel and propulsion system for the
long term, offering zero vehicle tailpipe emissions, greater efficiency and
lower CO2, well-to-wheels, than other vehicles. FCV prototypes also have
promising long-term potential for weight, size and cost reductions to make
them competitive with current ICE cars.
For a comprehensive chart
that includes the specs and range of all the fuel cell cars currently in
development, please visit our Charts page.
Fuel cells are ideal for
power generation, either connected to the electric grid to provide
supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a
grid-independent generator for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible
by power lines. Since fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise
pollution as well as air pollution and the waste heat from a fuel cell can be
used to provide hot water or space heating.
There are three main
components in a residential fuel cell system - the hydrogen fuel reformer,
the fuel cell stack and the power conditioner. Many of the prototypes being
tested and demonstrated extract hydrogen from propane or natural gas. The
fuel cell stack converts the hydrogen and oxygen from the air into
electricity, water vapor and heat. The power conditioner then converts the
electric DC current from the stack into AC current that many household appliances
operate on. The initial price per unit in low volume production will be
approximately $1,500 per kW. Once high volume production begins, the price is
expected to drop to $1,000 per kW, with the ultimate goal of getting costs
below $500 per kW. Fuel cell developers are racing to reach these cost
targets.
Many companies are
developing and testing fuel cells for stationary and residential
applications, working together with utilities and distributors to bring them
to market. Even automakers such as GM, Honda and Toyota are branching beyond
vehicles and spending money on research and development for stationary
applications.
A good place to start is FuelCellStore.com, which provides a virtual
marketplace for a wide variety of fuel cells, electrolyzers and hydrogen
storage products.
The following companies
offer a wide range of fuel cell products, including prototype demonstration
systems, low-wattage systems, beta-testing systems, and fuel cell-powered
products. You will need to check with the individual companies to see if
their systems/products are suited to your needs. The U.S. Fuel Cell Council
has compiled a list of commercialized fuel cell products.
You can also check out our Interactive map and listing of fuel cell developers or purchase our Fuel Cell Directory.
BCS Technology, Inc. - small PEM fuel cell
systems
EcoSoul, Inc - small, educational regenerative
fuel cell kits
ElectroChem, Inc. - small PEM fuel cell
systems
Element 1 Power Systems, Inc. - fuel
cell systems in a variety of sizes
FuelCell
Energy, Inc. - Molten carbonate fuel cell power plants
Heliocentris Energiesysteme - educational fuel
cell kits
Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies - wide range of units, from educational to small power systems
IdaTech - fuel cell systems with up to 10 kW
in generating power
Nuvera - PEM
fuel cells for backup/telecommunications
Plug Power, LLC - PEM fuel cells for back up
power
ReliOn - PEM
fuel cells for backup and remote applications
UTC Power - 200kW
PAFC power plants
Let us know if your
company sells fuel cells and should be added to this list. Note: only sellers
of fuel cell products, stacks or systems will be added to this list.
Since Fuel Cells 2000
tries to be an independent voice on the subject of fuel cell technology, we
do not recommend stocks of one company over another company. There are,
however, places on the web where you can go for information on fuel cell
companies that are publicly traded, and can track investment info on these
companies. Check out our Fuel Cell Equity and
Investment chart to see
which companies are receiving money from investment and venture capital
firms. Listing these sites is not an implicit endorsement by Fuel Cells 2000
of the information contained on the sites:
Many technical and
engineering challenges remain; scientists and developers are hard at work on
them. The biggest problem is that fuel cells are still too expensive. One key
reason is that not enough are being made to allow economies of scale. When
the Model T Ford was introduced, it, too, was very expensive. Eventually,
mass production made the Model T affordable.
It is very important to
spread the successes and show support for fuel cell and hydrogen technology.
Please visit ourGrassroots page to find resources for letter writing, contacting your
Congressman and engaging in the debate.
A fuel cell runs on
hydrogen, the simplest element and most plentiful gas in the universe. Yet
hydrogen is never found alone - it's always combined with other elements such
as oxygen and carbon. Once it has been separated, hydrogen is the ultimate
clean energy carrier, which is why it is the most attractive fuel for fuel
cells. It has excellent electrochemical reactivity, it's safe to manufacture,
has a high power density, has zero emissions characteristics, and can be
obtained from a wide variety of sources. Hydrogen can be found in water,
fossil fuels such as gasoline, methanol, natural gas, propane, as well as in
ammonia and sodium borohydride.
Hydrogen made from
renewable energy resources provides a clean and abundant energy source,
capable of meeting most of the future's high energy needs. When hydrogen is
used as an energy source in a fuel cell, the only emission that is created is
water, which can then be electrolyzed to make more hydrogen – the waste
product supplies more fuel. This continuous cycle of energy production has
potential to replace traditional energy sources in every capacity – no more
dead batteries piling up in landfills or pollution-causing, gas-guzzling
combustion engines. The only drawback is that hydrogen is still more
expensive than other energy sources such as coal, oil and natural gas.
Researchers are helping to develop technologies to tap into this natural
resource and generate hydrogen in mass quantities and cheaper prices in order
to compete with the traditional energy sources. There are three main methods
that scientists are researching for inexpensive hydrogen generation. All
three separate the hydrogen from a 'feedstock', such as fossil fuel or water
- but by very different means.
Reformers - Fuel cells generally run on hydrogen, but any hydrogen-rich
material can serve as a possible fuel source. This includes fossil fuels –
methanol, ethanol, natural gas, petroleum distillates, liquid propane and
gasified coal. The hydrogen is produced from these materials by a process
known as reforming. This is extremely useful where stored hydrogen is not
available but must be used for power, for example, on a fuel cell powered
vehicle. One method is endothermic steam reforming. This type of reforming
combines the fuels with steam by vaporizing them together at high
temperatures. Hydrogen is then separated out using membranes. One drawback of
steam reforming is that is an endothermic process – meaning energy is
consumed. Another type of reformer is the partial oxidation (POX) reformer.
CO2 is emitted in the reforming process, which makes it not emission-free,
but the emissions of NOX, SOX, Particulates, and other smog producing agents
are probably more distasteful than the CO2. And fuel cells cut them to zero.
Enzymes - Another method to generate hydrogen is with bacteria and
algae. The cyanobacteria, an abundant single-celled organism, produces
hydrogen through its normal metabolic function,. Cyanobacteria can grow in
the air or water, and contain enzymes that absorb sunlight for energy and
split the molecules of water, thus producing hydrogen. Since cyanobacteria
take water and synthesize it to hydrogen, the waste emitted is more water,
which becomes food for the next metabolism.
Solar-
and Wind- powered generation - By
harnessing the renewable energy of the sun and wind, researchers are able to
generate hydrogen by using power from photovoltaics (PVs), solar cells, or
wind turbines to electrolyze water into hydrogen and oxygen. In this manner,
hydrogen becomes an energy carrier – able to transport the power from the
generation site to another location for use in a fuel cell. This would be a
truly zero-emissions way of producing hydrogen for a fuel cell.
Many questions have been
raised regarding hydrogen's safety as an energy carrier. Hydrogen is highly
flammable and requires a low hydrogen to air concentration for combustion.
However, if handled properly hydrogen is as safe or safer than most fuels,
and hydrogen producers and users have generated an impeccable safety record
over the last half-century.
There are many myths
about hydrogen, which have recently been dispelled. A study of the Hindenburg
incident found that it was not the hydrogen that was the cause of the
accident.
Comprehensive studies
have shown that hydrogen presents less of a safety hazard than other fuels
including gasoline, propane, and natural gas. In 1997, Ford Motor Company in
conjunction with the Department of Energy published a "Hydrogen Vehicle
Safety Report" in which it concluded, "the safety of a hydrogen
[Fuel Cell Vehicle] system to be potentially better than the demonstrated
safety record of gasoline or propane, and equal to or better than that of
natural gas." The study cited hydrogen's higher buoyancy, higher lower
flammability limit, and much higher lower detonation limit as major
contributors to hydrogen's greater safety potential.
Specifically, the study
compared the safety of the various fuel systems during collisions in open
spaces, collisions in tunnels, and over the fuels' entire lifecycle. The
study found that in an open space collision, hydrogen powered fuel cell
vehicles were safer than gasoline, propane, or natural gas powered internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles because of four factors.
In a tunnel collision,
the same properties that made hydrogen safer for open-air collisions should
also make hydrogen safer. Hydrogen gas will disperse quicker than other
fuels, although it could create a larger initial plume of gas potentially
coming into contact with more ignition sources than a natural gas plume.
If handled properly, the
entire lifecycle of the hydrogen should prove to be safer than those of
natural gas, propane, and gasoline. The production and transportation of
hydrogen would pose fewer direct public hazards because hydrogen gas
pipelines or hydrogen tanker trucks present less of a public risk than oil
tank trucks (see above). Moreover, hydrogen is not toxic and will not
contaminate the environment like a propane, gasoline, or even a natural gas
spill could.
Hydrogen's safety record
provides no evidence of an unusual safety risk. Liquid hydrogen trucks have
carried on the nation's roadways an average 70 million gallons of liquid
hydrogen per year without major incident. A high hydrogen gas mixture called
"town gas" used to light streetlights and houses has been
determined to have an equal safety rating as similarly used natural gas.
Hydrogen has been handled and sent through hundreds of miles of pipelines
with relative safety for the oil, chemical, and iron industries. Moreover,
NASA has used liquid hydrogen as its major fuel source for the last
half-century without major incident.
A great presentation on
hydrogen safety can be found HERE.
You can read more about
hydrogen and hydrogen safety at our Fuel Cell Library. More information on
hydrogen safety is available from the National Hydrogen Association.
Fuel cells run on
hydrogen, the most abundant element on Earth. The simplest and most efficient
vehicle designs store hydrogen on board, either as compressed gas, liquid, or
in metal hydride. Many automotive manufacturers have used a transition fuel
in earlier models of their fuel cell vehicles, with the long-term vision of
strictly hydrogen-powered vehicles. Some have demonstrated vehicles
running on methanol and sodium borohydride. The very first FCVs in
demonstration are powered by hydrogen. They are fleet vehicles that refuel at a centrally located fuel
station.
For a comprehensive chart
that includes the specs, range and fuel choice of all the fuel cell cars
currently in development, please visit our Charts page.
According to calculations
by Jason Mark of the Union of Concerned Scientists:
Assuming all hydrogen
input turns into water, and that all water is released (either as liquid or
vapor), "If the entire U.S. passenger vehicle fleet were powered by
hydrogen FCVs, the amount of water emitted annually (assuming no losses)
would be 0.005% the rate of natural evapotranspiration (water that evaporates
or is transpired by plants) in the continental U.S."
Many people are concerned
about the amount of water produced by a fuel cell vehicle. They worry
"where will the water go?" "Will it cause fog or ice?"
and what we can do with it to make it useful. Some discussion of what we have
now (the internal combustion engine) and what we will have in a few years
(the fuel cell vehicle) can help to put this into perspective.
It is important to
remember that gasoline engines also produce water. The hydrogen in gasoline
(and the hydrogen in diesel fuel and the hydrogen in natural gas) all combine
with oxygen in the flame to produce water. The production of water is one of
the big reasons combustion happens since forming water releases heat that
makes the reaction possible. It is not a new thing to produce water while
making power and energy. Burning or chemically oxidizing any hydrogen bearing
fuel produces water. The only fuel that may be an exception to this rule is
pure-carbon (coal). For the sake of comparison sake we will use a C6H18
(octane) baseline for gasoline. We will base our calculations of the current
situation on an internal combustion engine burning octane.
The classical hydrogen
fuel cell uses hydrogen as its fuel. Where does the hydrogen come from?
Natural gas! Yes, the vast majority of hydrogen sold in the world today is
made from natural gas, (natural gas is mostly methane, CH4). The conversion
is done by combining the CH4 with H2O (water!) to make H2 and CO2, so the
manufacturing of hydrogen actually USES water! But we will account for this
by using the energy units for comparison, just to make it simpler.
So we are comparing the
energy from a fuel cell using Hydrogen derived from natural gas to the energy
from a gasoline engine using gasoline (octane). What is the difference? The
heat of formation of water is - 69 kcal/mole and that of carbon dioxide is -
94 kcal/mole. The heat of combustion of octane in air at perfect
stoichiometry with no unburned hydrocarbon is 1806 kcal/mole and the
potential chemical energy contained in the same amount of methane is 370
kcal/mole. We must reduce the methane energy by 15% to account for an 85%
efficient (energy basis) reformer. The reduction leaves us with 315 kcal/mole
in the methane. Comparing the energy content to the hydrogen content allows
us to get at the difference in water production between the two fuels.
The ratio of heat
produced by chemically oxidizing each one is 1806/315 = 5.7. That means one
mole of octane will produce almost six times the energy of one mole of methane
(converted to hydrogen and) used in a fuel cell, and it weighs more too.
The ratio of water formed
is the same as the ratio of hydrogen atoms or 18/4 = 4.5. That means the
octane makes 4.5 times the amount of water as the methane does to make 5.7
times the energy. Computing a relative ratio of water production for a common
unit of energy (cal or btu) gives 4.5/5.7 = 0.78. So the octane makes less
water (22% less) than the methane does, on a per unit of energy basis. But
energy doesn't take into account the energy conversion device (the fuel cell
versus the internal combustion engine). We have to take the energy conversion
efficiency into account. Fuel cells are typically 30%-40% efficient in
automotive sizes.
They are even higher in
efficiency in some instances running on pure hydrogen. Some automotive
applications running on pure hydrogen have achieved 50% efficiency using fuel
cells. Gasoline internal combustion engines are lucky to get 15%-20%. This
means that for the same energy in the fuel, the fuel cell car will do twice
the work, and the car will travel twice as far, or conversely that the fuel
cell car will need only half the energy to do the same work (move the same
miles). So divide the 5.7 in half to get 5.7/2 = 2.85 (you only need half the
energy to do the same work!) and now you have the FINAL ANSWER. 4.5/2.85 =
1.6. So the internal combustion engine actually makes 1.6 times MORE water
than the fuel cell for the same miles traveled in the same car with the same
passenger and luggage load. On a "miles traveled" basis, the fuel
cell produces LESS water than an internal combustion engine running on
gasoline. This is mostly due to the much higher efficiency of the fuel cell
compared to the internal combustion engine.
While it is true that the
internal combustion engine will make more water, it does so at a higher
temperature and this might tend to keep the water in the vapor phase longer
than the low temperature fuel cell exhaust. It remains to be seen how the now
fuel cell cars will fare in use, but the California Fuel Cell Partnership will
certainly find out. But keep in mind that on cold days, the relative humidity
is usually VERY low, even if it is snowing, so the chances of condensation on
the road are reduced. In Chicago and Vancouver, when they tested the Ballard
buses, they put the exhaust up at the top of the bus to help make sure the
water vapor didn't cause a problem, and it didn't! It made a
"plume" of water vapor on cold days, but no condensation problems
at all.
Courtesy of Jeremy
Snyder, Desert Research Institute
Government support can
provide lasting momentum toward developing new technologies. The U.S.
government has been involved in fuel cell and hydrogen research for decades
now.
Launched in 1996, the
Department of Defense’s (DOD) Climate Change Fuel Cell Program provides grants of $1,000/kilowatt to purchasers of fuel cell
power plants. The ‘buydown’ program has awarded more than $18.8 million
toward the purchase of 94 fuel cell units. DOD also has a residential fuel
cell demonstration program involving over 21 units at 12 different military
locations.
The DoD's Defense Logistics Agency is taking a proactive role in deploying fuel cell-powered
forklifts in their Defense Depot warehouses around the country.
In 2000, the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE) formed the Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA), made up of commercial developers, universities, national
laboratories, and government agencies, to develop low-cost, high power
density, solid-state fuel cells for a broad range of applications.
DOE's Fuel Cell Technologies
Program, a program of the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, works with partners to accelerate the
development and successful market introduction of hydrogen and fuel cell
technologies. The website has technical information, publications and lots of
resources.
The Department of
Transportation maintains a fuel cell bus research program. The Environmental
Protection Agency has a program to facilitate the use of fuel cells at
landfills and wastewater treatment plants, with several fuel cells already
been installed across the United States.
There is a Federal Fuel Cell Tex
Incentive in
place until 2016.
Fuel cells can provide
major environmental, energy and economic benefits that advance critical
national goals. Development and optimization of energy technologies has
always been a partnership between government and the private sector.
Other power technologies
have enjoyed considerable support in the past, including tax credits for natural
gas drilling, military support for gas turbine technology, support for solar
power research, nuclear power research and coal cleanup technologies, among
many other programs.
Other countries are
moving aggressively towards a hydrogen and fuel cell future so the U.S.
should pay heed.
Does my
state offer incentives for purchasing or installing fuel cells? What is my
state doing by way of fuel cell installations and demonstrations?
47 states and the
District of Columbia have some sort of fuel cell or hydrogen legislation,
demonstration or activism taking place today. BTI has published State Activities That Promote
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Infrastructure Development, a
comprehensive state-by-state analysis of state programs and incentives that
specifically include hydrogen, fuel cells and zero emission vehicles. We have
also created the searchable State Fuel Cell and Hydrogen
Database which
catalogues all regulations, initiatives, policy and partnerships in the fuel
cell and hydrogen arena. We also include all stationary fuel cell
installations, hydrogen fueling stations and vehicle demonstrations in the
United States.
Fourteen states across
the U.S. have established funds to promote renewable energy and clean energy
technologies. TheClean Energy Funds Network (CEFN) is a non-profit project to provide information and
technical services to these funds and to work with them to build and expand
clean energy markets in the United States.
DOE's Office of Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) has added EERE State Activities &
Partnerships containing links to hundreds of state-specific
Web pages published by EERE and its technology development programs,
including such information as DOE grants to the states, resource maps,
project databases, and contacts. Itl also includes the latest state energy
news, publications, and statistics.
The U.S. faces fierce
competition from other countries. Canada, Japan and Germany are aggressively
promoting fuel cell development with tax credits, low-interest loans and grants
to support early purchases and drive down costs.
The International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy was established in 2003 as an international institution to
accelerate the transition to a hydrogen economy. Members countries include
(click on country to see links to government programs and projects, latest
media, reports and roadmaps, and recent IPHE statements) Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, European Commission, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Russian Federation,United Kingdom, and the United States.
Fuel Cell Today publishes worldwide and country-specific fuel cell and hydrogen
market surveys on their website.
New Players in the Hydrogen
Game - an
article by Sandra Curtin in Earthtoys E-magazine about Iceland, Sweden and
Denmark's hydrogen and fuel cell support and projects.
Other international
organizations include:
European Fuel Cell Group - European trade association for the fuel cell industry.
Fuel Cell Commercialization
Conference of Japan -
examines specific issues affecting the commercialization and widespread use
of fuel cells, and incorporates the findings into policy proposals with a
view to enabling member companies to take steps to resolve the issues
themselves, and having these findings reflected in government measures.
Through this, the FCCJ can make an important contribution to the
commercialization and widespread use of fuel cells in Japan, and to the
growth of Japan's fuel cell industry.
Fuel Cell Institute of Australia - organization focusing on fuel cells within Australia.
Fuel Cells UK - established
to foster the development of the UK fuel cell industry; elevate the UK
industry in the international arena; and raise the profile of UK fuel cell
activity.
Hydrogen
& Fuel Cells Canada -
mission is to accelerate Canada's world-leading hydrogen and fuel cell
industry. Members include most types of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies,
components, systems supply and integration, fuelling systems, fuel storage,
and engineering and financial services.
U.S. Fuel Cell Council - a nonprofit trade association dedicated to fostering the
commercialization of fuel cells in the United States.
World Fuel Cell Council - a non-profit association founded in 1991 to promote the most
rapid commercialization of fuel cells. Members of the Council include
companies involved in the development of fuel cells. Based in Germany.
The U.S. government
should take three steps to help commercialize fuel cells:
1. Major increases are
needed in research and development budgets of the Departments of Energy and
Transportation, and elsewhere.
2. The federal government
should also take the lead to purchase early power units and vehicles.
3. The government should
continue and expand the program to help "buy down" the cost of
early units installed around the country.
To put costs into
perspective, we pay more than $5 billion for imported oil each month. A small
fraction of that amount could fully commercialize fuel cells within five
years and create tens of thousands of jobs.
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen: The Path Forward presented a comprehensive strategy for federal investment in
fuel cell technology and fuel infrastructure. The report lays out a 10-year,
$5.5 billion cost-shared plan designed to maximize the benefits of
government-industry partnerships. The $5.5 billion is the federal
government's share of the plan, comparable to past energy government
investment. The fuel cell coalition estimates that industry would invest ten times
that figure.
To find out what you can
do as an individual, check out our Grassroots page.
If you are interested in
building your own fuel cell, there is an article from Home Power magazine that provides step-by-step instructions on how to build
a fuel cell from scratch. This is an archived issue, so it costs $5.00.
The e-book Build Your Own Fuel Cells by Phillip Hurley contains complete, easy to understand
illustrated instructions for building several types of proton exchange
membrane (PEM) fuel cells - and, printable templates for 6 PEM fuel cell
types, including convection fuel cells and oxygen-hydrogen fuel cells, in
both single slice and stacks.
Fuelcellstore.com has all of the available fuel cell kits, stacks and components
to build a fuel cell.
There are many resources out
there focusing on fuel cells and many websites offer science projects and
lesson plans for students and teachers interested in learning more about this
technology. The Educational Resources page of our Career Center has a more complete list.
Dr. Martin Schmidt has
written a paper that provides an excellent school science project written for
all interested persons, even for those having little prior knowledge of fuel
cells. You can find his paper online.
If you are interested in
building your own fuel cell, there is an article from Home Power magazine that provides step-by-step instructions on how to build
a fuel cell from scratch. The issue is now archived, so it costs $5.00
to purchase.
Fuel Cell Technology: An
Alternative Energy System For the Future, contains a fuel cell lesson plan for teachers, but includes
experiments that students could use for a science project or report.
Energy Quest, a program from the California Energy
Commission, has a lot of great information on fuel cells, renewable energy
and alternative vehicles. In the Energy & Science Projects section, there
are a number of science projects and energy activities for students, K-12,
including links to other science project sites.
And as always, for the
latest fuel cell news and information, our online Fuel Cell Library includes links to numerous books, articles, and market studies
about the entire fuel cell industry - different fuel cell types, fuels and
applications. You can also go to our Links page to
access information from government agencies, fuel cell newsletters and
organizations involved in renewable energy or subscribe to our free Monthly Fuel Cell Technology
Updates.
Our online Fuel Cell Library includes links to numerous books, articles, and market studies
about the entire fuel cell industry - different fuel cell types, fuels and
applications. Our Publications page has links to free
fuel cell newsletters and informational brochures, as well as textbooks and
books you can purchase. You can also go to our Links page to access information from government agencies, fuel cell
newsletters and organizations involved in renewable energy or subscribe to
our free Monthly Fuel Cell Technology Updates.
|
Fuel cells run on hydrogen,
the simplest element and most plentiful gas in the universe. Hydrogen is
colorless, odorless and tasteless. Each hydrogen molecule has two atoms of
hydrogen, which accounts for the H 2 we often see. Hydrogen is the lightest
element, with a density of 0.08988 grams per liter at standard pressure, yet it
has the highest energy content per unit weight of all the fuels – 52,000
Btu/lb, or three times the energy of a pound of gasoline.
Hydrogen is never found
alone on earth — it is always combined with other elements such as oxygen and
carbon. Hydrogen can be extracted from virtually any hydrogen compound and is
the ultimate clean energy carrier. It is safe to manufacture. And hydrogen's
chemical energy can be harnessed in pollution-free ways.
Hydrogen
generated from diverse domestic resources can reduce demand for oil by more
than 11 million barrels per day by the year 2040.
A good source of
information on hydrogen is the U.S. Department of Energy's H2IQ web page, as well as the overview book, Hydrogen & Our Energy
Future, which expands on DOE's series of one-page fact sheets to
provide an in-depth look at hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. This overview
book provides additional information on the science behind the technology — how
it works, benefits over conventional technology, its status, and challenges —
and explains how hydrogen and fuel cells fit into our energy portfolio.
Together
with partners, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) developed a National
Hydrogen Energy Road Map to provide a framework to make the hydrogen economy a
reality. This Road Map outlines the challenges ahead to developing a
hydrogen economy - including the necessary elements of a hydrogen
infrastructure for not only on transportation uses but also distributed
generation, since development of a hydrogen infrastructure would benefit both
applications.
The
National Hydrogen Energy Road Map and other pertinent documents are available
on the DOE's Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, & Infrastructure Technologies
Program website.
Safety
Hydrogen is the perfect
companion to electrons in the clean energy systems of the future. But hydrogen
is not perfect – no fuel is.
· Because
of its high energy content, hydrogen must be handled properly, just as gasoline
and natural gas today require careful handling. Hydrogen is no more dangerous
than other fuels, just different.
· Hydrogen-based
fuels like “town gas” were used in many communities in the U.S. and are still
used around the world.
· Hydrogen
is made, shipped and used safely today in many industries worldwide. Hydrogen
producers and users have generated an impeccable safety record over the last
half-century.
· Liquid hydrogen trucks have carried on the
nation's roadways an average 70 million gallons of liquid hydrogen per year
without major incident.
Hydrogen has been handled
and sent through hundreds of miles of pipelines with relative safety for the
oil, chemical, and iron industries.
· Hydrogen and the Law: Safety
and Liability - a
powerpoint presentation with lots of statistics and information on hydrogen
safety.
Hydrogen Safety for First
Responders - DOE's
Introduction to Hydrogen Safety for First Responders is a Web-based course that
provides an "awareness level" overview of hydrogen for fire, law
enforcement, and emergency medical personnel, but also contains a lot of useful
information for everyone. This multimedia tutorial introduces hydrogen, its
basic properties, and how it compares to other familiar fuels; hydrogen use in
fuel cells for transportation and stationary power; potential hazards; initial
protective actions should a responder witness an incident; and supplemental
resources including videos, supporting documents, and links relevant to
hydrogen safety. To receive print or CD versions of the course, contact DOE's
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Information Center or call 1-877-EERE-INFO/877-337-3463.
Fuel Flexibility means Energy Security. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of sources:
· Traditional: natural gas, gasoline, diesel, propane
· Renewable/alternative fuels: methanol, ethanol,
landfill gas, bio-gas, methane
· Water: using electrolysis, solar or wind power
· Innovative: sodium borohydride, algae, peanut shells
Storage
Because hydrogen is such a
light gas, it is difficult to store a large amount in a small space. That is a
challenge for auto engineers who want to match today's 300-mile vehicle range,
but some recent vehicles have done it. Researchers are examining an impressive
array of storage options, with U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) support. Today's
prototype FCVs use compressed hydrogen tanks or liquid hydrogen tanks. New
technologies such as metal hydrides and chemical hydrides may become viable in
the future. Another option would be to store hydrogen compounds – methanol,
gasoline, or other compounds – on board, and extract the hydrogen when the
vehicle is operating.
Delivery
Since fuel cells convert
hydrogen into electricity, the main question on everybody's mind is “Where and
how am I going to get the hydrogen to fuel up my fuel cell car?” If auto
engineers choose to store hydrogen compounds on board the vehicle, tomorrow's
fuel infrastructure would look a lot like today's. Many other options are being
explored to deliver hydrogen to fuel cell vehicles (FCVs).
- Centralized
production and delivery. Hydrogen production and delivery
services – including a limited pipeline system – already serve the needs
of today's industrial demand.
- On-Site
Production. The energy
station of the future might produce hydrogen on demand from natural gas,
other compounds or even water.
- Innovative
Approaches. Fuel
cell products that generate electrical power sometimes come with hydrogen
generators called Reformers. An energy station might purchase one of these
units, use the electricity for operations and tap into the reformer to
produce hydrogen for vehicles.
- Power
from the sun. The ultimate
solution might be solar powered hydrogen filling stations, where
electricity generated by the sun (or by a windmill) is used to extract
hydrogen from water. This is not as far out as it sounds. Two such
stations already are operating in Southern California.
For a complete listing of
the hydrogen fueling stations worldwide, check out
our chart.
How much will Hydrogen fuel cost?
The U.S.
Department of Energy's Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies
Program is working to achieve the following goals:
By 2005,
the technology will be available to produce hydrogen at the pump for $3.00 per
gallon gasoline equivalent, and DOE wants to validate this technology by
2008. By 2010, the price goal is $1.50 per gallon of gasoline equivalent
(untaxed) at the station.
Even $3 a
gallon would save most of us money, since FCVs will be two to three times more
efficient than internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. If all the
goals are met, FCVs offer the promise of energy at $1 a gallon - or less!